Ménière’s disease (MD) is an idiopathic inner ear disorder, characterised by episodes of vertigo, tinnitus, sensorineural hearing loss, and aural fullness in the affected ear. The relatively high variability of symptomological changes renders it difficult to confirm the MD diagnosis. The purpose of this study is to compare the diagnostic power of an instrumental method, electrocochleography (ECochG), and two subjective methods, including the criteria based on the clinical guidelines provided by the American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery Committee on Hearing Equilibrium (AAO-HNS CHE) and Gibson’s Score. A quota sampling method was used to include subjects. A total of 250 potential MD patients who were referred to the Department of Otolaryngology at the Christchurch Hospital between year 1994 and 2009 have had their signs and symptoms documented and ECochG testing completed. A selection of details obtained from both AAO-HNS CHE and ECochG assessment results were examined as a chart review in regard to its function as a diagnostic tool for MD. The between-method reliability was found to be high, with a few disagreements on individual diagnosis. Based on a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis, the ECochG measures were shown to be pertinent to the diagnosis of MD. It was also found that patients tested “positive”, as compared with those tested “negative”, tended to show higher correlations among the four key symptoms of MD and among the ECochG measures derived from the auditory evoked responses to tone bursts at frequencies in close proximity to each other.

This work focuses on a simple template assisted approach for fabricating I-III-VI semiconductor nanowire arrays. Vertically aligned nanowires of p-CIS of controllable diameter and thickness are electrodeposited, from an acidic electrolyte solution, inside porous aluminum templates using a three electrode set up with saturated calomel electrode as the reference. AAO template over ITO-glass was used as starting template for the device fabrication. The deposited CIS is annealed at different temperatures in a reducing environment (95% Ar+ 5% H2) for 30 minutes. X-ray diffraction of the nanowires showed nanocrystalline cubic phase structures with a strong orientation in the <112> direction. The effective bandgap of the deposited CIS nanowires determined using the Near Infrared (NIR) Spectrometer was found to be 1.07eV. The type of CIS electrodeposited inside the porous alumina template is determined to be p-type from the Schottky diode obtained with ITO-CIS-Au structure. Schottky diodes were characterized and analyzed at room temperature.

Vertically aligned nanowire arrays of copper phthalocyanine (CuPc) and CuPc-Al Schottky diodes, of controllable diameter and length were fabricated by cathodic electrodeposition of CuPc into anodized alumina (AAO) templates, followed by annealing at 300 ºC in Argon. AAO over Aluminum tape and that over ITO-glass were both used as starting templates for the device fabrication. Depending on the dimensions of the starting AAO template, diameters of CuPc nanowires ranged from 30 nm to 40 nm and the lengths ranged from 500 nm to 1 μm. The temperature dependence of the phase and the absorption spectrum of the nanowires are reported. The electrodeposited nanowires (as prepared) had the preferred crystallite orientation of the α-phase. ITO formed the ohmic contact and Schottky contacts were formed between CuPc and aluminum. Insertion of a thin layer of PEDOT:PSS between CuPc nanowires and the ITO electrode improved the contact and reduced the series resistance by an order of magnitude. Schottky diodes were characterized and analyzed at room temperature and at cryogenic temperatures.

This work focuses on the growth of vertically aligned CdTe nanowire arrays of controllable diameter and length using cathodic electro deposition in anodized alumina templates. This step was followed by annealing at 250° C in a reducing environment (95% Ar + 5% H2). AAO template over ITO-glass was used as starting template for the device fabrication. The deposited nanowires showed nanocrystalline cubic phase structures with a strong preference in [111] direction. First gold (Au) was deposited into AAO using cathodic electro deposition. This was followed by CdTe deposition into the pore. Gold was deposited first as it aids the growth of CdTe inside AAO and it makes Schottky contact with the deposited n type CdTe. CdTe was determined to be n-type from the fact that back to back diode was obtained with Au-CdTe-Au test structure. Aluminum (Al) was sputtered on the top to make the ohmic contact to the n type CdTe deposited in AAO. Analysis of Schottky diodes yielded a diode ideality factor of 10.03 under dark and 10.08 under light and reverse saturation current density of 34.9μA/cm2 under dark and 39.7μA/cm2 under light.

No description available.

A process with aim to prepare an oxidically and thermal resistant layer was performed on the samples from clear aluminium (99,99+ %, VÚK čisté kovy, s. r. o.) and on the samples from clear titanium (99,95 % Goodfellow) with a layer from sputtered aluminium (99,99 %, VÚK čisté kovy, s. r. o.), An oxidic layer was prepared on the samples by anodization in the oxalic acid. The layer had fine, hexagonally organized pores with the diameter of 30 nm. During the following processing was the structure prepared for the electrochemical deposition of copper to the pores. The aim of the electrodeposition was preparation of copper nanowires deposited into the pores of the oxidic layer. The process was performed in the solution of copper sulfate and sulfuric acid in water. The controlling parameter of the deposition was voltage which had a very asymmetric period. The period had to be optimized for a successful preparation of the wires. The result of the whole process was structure with oxidic matrix whose most of the pores were filled with copper.

Electronic Packaging is currently deeply in need of new solutions concerning vertical interconnection strategies. With respect to downscaling the geometrical limits, entering the nanoscale for first-level interconnects is nothing more than a consequence. This thesis proposes a new strategy for highly resolved vertical interconnects that are realized by metallic nanowires (NWs). These are embedded inside a dielectric matrix enabling the further raster size reduction for chip interconnects. The creation of NW arrays in self-ordering templates (anodized Al2O3 (AAO) and track-etched poly carbonate) by electrochemical deposition of Ag and Ni inside the pores of these as well as the characterisation of the NWs' properties with respect to the film's applicability are to the fore. Electrical properties are shown to be sensitive to the mode of deposition. Crystallographic properties do not seem to be responsible for this while the NWs' morphology slightly differs and is therefore expected to remarkably influence electron transport. Additionally, the deposition mechanism in high-aspect-ratio pores of AAO is in another focus of investigation. This process was in the past described as diffusively controlled, but this assertion was not further evaluated. The presence of a gradient in the diffusion coefficient as well as the presence and expansion of an electrochemical double layer located at the template's inner surface are responsible limiting the deposition process. An existing model of porous electrodes is compared to the measured data and found not to be valid for the system of highly recessed ultramicroelectrode arrays by which this system is described. Therefore a new model that differentiates between charge-transfer and diffusive motion is proposed and shown to fit to the system's properties. Apart from mechanistic investigations, the implementation of the obtained NW arrays as an interconnector film proposes these to be applied best by adhesive bonding. Bonding properties were found to be well realizable by the additional coverage of the filled membranes with a polymer thin film. This can easily be attached onto the film by spin-coating the corresponding monomer and reactive curing while already being embedded in the package. Alternative methods for contact formation, such as non-reactive bonding and nanosoldering using segmented NWs, are proposed. The strategy is shown to still lack important technological questions while the findings with respect to fabrication, growth and implementation are very promising. / Die Aufbau- und Verbindungstechnik der Elektronik wird in absehbarer Zeit Größenskalen erreichen, bei denen die verwendeten Materialien in der ersten Kontaktierungsebene als Nanomaterialien zu bezeichnen sind, das heißt ≤ 100 nm sind. Des Weiteren bestehen momentan nur bedingt viele Ansätze zu deren Implementierung in Vertikalverbindungsstrukturen (zum Beispiel für die dreidimensionale Integration). Die vorliegende Dissertation schlägt daher vor, die vertikale Verbindung über einen zwischen die Chips laminierbaren Film mit hochdichten und vertikal ausgerichteten nanoskaligen Drähten (NWs) zu realisieren. Diese sind in einer dielektrischen Matrix fixiert und gewährleisten die elektrische Anisotropie des Kontaktfilms. Innerhalb dieser Matrix werden die metallischen Drähte durch elektrochemische Abscheidung erzeugt. Der Fokus dieser Arbeit liegt somit auf der Charakterisierung des reduktiven Wachstumsprozesses von Ag und Ni innerhalb dünner Poren. Dabei können die Eigenschaften durch verschiedene Abscheidemodi gezielt beeinflusst werden. Hinsichtlich der elektrischen Eigenschaften ergibt sich im Vergleich zu der zugrundeliegenden Kristallographie ein wesentlich stärkerer Einfluss der Draht-Morphologie. Der Prozess der Porenfüllung wird im Allgemeinen als stark diffusionskontrolliert angenommen, wurde jedoch bisher nicht weiter quantifiziert. Die der Abscheidung zugrundeliegenden Prozesse Elektrolytdiffusion, Ladungstransfer an der Elektrode und Migrationsbeeinflussung durch die Porengeometrie werden daher voneinander getrennt und einzeln charakterisiert. Das vorliegende System kann als Matrix von stark versenkten Ultramikroelektroden abstrahiert werden. Existente Modelle zur Beschreibung derartiger Systeme treffen auf den vorliegenden Fall im Allgemeinen nicht zu, sodass basierend auf elektrochemischen Untersuchungen ein variiertes Abscheidemodell vorgeschlagen wird. Dieses berücksichtigt die Nicht-Linearität der elektrochemischen Doppelschicht, die von der Porenoberfläche ausgeht sowie deren Frequenzabhängigkeit. Neben mechanistischen Untersuchungen schließen sich Versuche an, deren Fokus auf der direkten Anwendung der mit Nanodrähten gefüllten Membranen liegt. Dabei wird vornehmlich deren Fixierung per Klebeverbindung angestrebt. Die Realisierung klebbarer Filme gelingt über die Auftragung von polymeren Dünnfilmen durch Spin-Coating des jeweiligen Monomeren. Diese Filme werden hinsichtlich ihrer Klebeeigenschaften charakterisiert. Abschließend werden alternative Kontaktiermethoden wie die Thermokompression oder das nanoskalige Löten basierend auf der Herstellung von segmentierten Nanodrähten demonstriert und hinsichtlich ihrer Applizierbarkeit diskutiert. Die erreichten Ergebnisse zeigen den noch vorhandenen Bedarf an technologischer Optimierung sowie Kompatibilisierung auf. Die Erkenntnisse hinsichtlich der Herstellung, des Wachstums sowie der Implementierungsansätze sind jedoch vielversprechend.

Electronic Packaging is currently deeply in need of new solutions concerning vertical interconnection strategies. With respect to downscaling the geometrical limits, entering the nanoscale for first-level interconnects is nothing more than a consequence. This thesis proposes a new strategy for highly resolved vertical interconnects that are realized by metallic nanowires (NWs). These are embedded inside a dielectric matrix enabling the further raster size reduction for chip interconnects. The creation of NW arrays in self-ordering templates (anodized Al2O3 (AAO) and track-etched poly carbonate) by electrochemical deposition of Ag and Ni inside the pores of these as well as the characterisation of the NWs' properties with respect to the film's applicability are to the fore. Electrical properties are shown to be sensitive to the mode of deposition. Crystallographic properties do not seem to be responsible for this while the NWs' morphology slightly differs and is therefore expected to remarkably influence electron transport. Additionally, the deposition mechanism in high-aspect-ratio pores of AAO is in another focus of investigation. This process was in the past described as diffusively controlled, but this assertion was not further evaluated. The presence of a gradient in the diffusion coefficient as well as the presence and expansion of an electrochemical double layer located at the template's inner surface are responsible limiting the deposition process. An existing model of porous electrodes is compared to the measured data and found not to be valid for the system of highly recessed ultramicroelectrode arrays by which this system is described. Therefore a new model that differentiates between charge-transfer and diffusive motion is proposed and shown to fit to the system's properties. Apart from mechanistic investigations, the implementation of the obtained NW arrays as an interconnector film proposes these to be applied best by adhesive bonding. Bonding properties were found to be well realizable by the additional coverage of the filled membranes with a polymer thin film. This can easily be attached onto the film by spin-coating the corresponding monomer and reactive curing while already being embedded in the package. Alternative methods for contact formation, such as non-reactive bonding and nanosoldering using segmented NWs, are proposed. The strategy is shown to still lack important technological questions while the findings with respect to fabrication, growth and implementation are very promising.:List of Figures List of Tables List of Acronyms List of Symbols 1 Nanoscale interconnects 1 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Electronic device development and its consequences 1.3 The need for and the design of a nanoscale wiring film 1.3.1 Nanomaterials for packaging - Some examples 1.3.2 Preconsiderations for designing nanoscale interconnects 1.3.3 Compatitibility of ACANWF to industrial applications 1.3.4 Demands to the film 1.4 Resumée - Strategy 2 NW fabrication by electodeposition and synthesis-property relationships 2.1 Templates for NW electrodeposition 2.1.1 Anodized Al2O3 (AAO) 2.1.2 Track-etched polymer membranes 2.2 Template-assisted Electrochemical Deposition (ECD) of NWs 2.2.1 Concept 2.2.2 Deposition modes 2.2.3 In_uences of other physical parameters 2.2.4 Errors and error mechanisms 2.2.5 Deposition in chemically functionalized AAO 2.3 Synthesis-property relationships for single NWs 2.3.1 NiNWs 2.3.2 AgNWs 2.4 Resumée . 3 Growth processes in mesoporous templates 3.1 Relevance for mechanistic investigations 3.2 Processes during NW growth 3.2.1 Electrode kinetics 3.2.2 Diffusion 3.2.3 Interactions with pore walls 3.3 Model systems 3.3.1 DeLevie's model for porous electrodes 3.3.2 Model verification 3.3.3 Model adaptation to non-ideal behaviour 3.4 Resumée 4 Implementation of nanowire arrays into microelectronic packaging 4.1 Adhesive Bonding 4.1.1 Adhesion by thin adhesive layers 4.1.2 Thermocompression bonds 4.2 Nanosoldering 4.2.1 Deposition of low melting point materials 4.2.2 Segmented nanowires 4.3 Resumée 5 Conclusion and perspectives 5.1 Conclusion 5.2 Perspectives on further investigations 6 Appendices 6.1 Technical equipment 6.2 Experimental methods 6.3 Selected characterisation techniques 6.4 Supplementary Information 6.5 Glossary 6.6 List of publications & presentations Bibliography / Die Aufbau- und Verbindungstechnik der Elektronik wird in absehbarer Zeit Größenskalen erreichen, bei denen die verwendeten Materialien in der ersten Kontaktierungsebene als Nanomaterialien zu bezeichnen sind, das heißt ≤ 100 nm sind. Des Weiteren bestehen momentan nur bedingt viele Ansätze zu deren Implementierung in Vertikalverbindungsstrukturen (zum Beispiel für die dreidimensionale Integration). Die vorliegende Dissertation schlägt daher vor, die vertikale Verbindung über einen zwischen die Chips laminierbaren Film mit hochdichten und vertikal ausgerichteten nanoskaligen Drähten (NWs) zu realisieren. Diese sind in einer dielektrischen Matrix fixiert und gewährleisten die elektrische Anisotropie des Kontaktfilms. Innerhalb dieser Matrix werden die metallischen Drähte durch elektrochemische Abscheidung erzeugt. Der Fokus dieser Arbeit liegt somit auf der Charakterisierung des reduktiven Wachstumsprozesses von Ag und Ni innerhalb dünner Poren. Dabei können die Eigenschaften durch verschiedene Abscheidemodi gezielt beeinflusst werden. Hinsichtlich der elektrischen Eigenschaften ergibt sich im Vergleich zu der zugrundeliegenden Kristallographie ein wesentlich stärkerer Einfluss der Draht-Morphologie. Der Prozess der Porenfüllung wird im Allgemeinen als stark diffusionskontrolliert angenommen, wurde jedoch bisher nicht weiter quantifiziert. Die der Abscheidung zugrundeliegenden Prozesse Elektrolytdiffusion, Ladungstransfer an der Elektrode und Migrationsbeeinflussung durch die Porengeometrie werden daher voneinander getrennt und einzeln charakterisiert. Das vorliegende System kann als Matrix von stark versenkten Ultramikroelektroden abstrahiert werden. Existente Modelle zur Beschreibung derartiger Systeme treffen auf den vorliegenden Fall im Allgemeinen nicht zu, sodass basierend auf elektrochemischen Untersuchungen ein variiertes Abscheidemodell vorgeschlagen wird. Dieses berücksichtigt die Nicht-Linearität der elektrochemischen Doppelschicht, die von der Porenoberfläche ausgeht sowie deren Frequenzabhängigkeit. Neben mechanistischen Untersuchungen schließen sich Versuche an, deren Fokus auf der direkten Anwendung der mit Nanodrähten gefüllten Membranen liegt. Dabei wird vornehmlich deren Fixierung per Klebeverbindung angestrebt. Die Realisierung klebbarer Filme gelingt über die Auftragung von polymeren Dünnfilmen durch Spin-Coating des jeweiligen Monomeren. Diese Filme werden hinsichtlich ihrer Klebeeigenschaften charakterisiert. Abschließend werden alternative Kontaktiermethoden wie die Thermokompression oder das nanoskalige Löten basierend auf der Herstellung von segmentierten Nanodrähten demonstriert und hinsichtlich ihrer Applizierbarkeit diskutiert. Die erreichten Ergebnisse zeigen den noch vorhandenen Bedarf an technologischer Optimierung sowie Kompatibilisierung auf. Die Erkenntnisse hinsichtlich der Herstellung, des Wachstums sowie der Implementierungsansätze sind jedoch vielversprechend.:List of Figures List of Tables List of Acronyms List of Symbols 1 Nanoscale interconnects 1 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Electronic device development and its consequences 1.3 The need for and the design of a nanoscale wiring film 1.3.1 Nanomaterials for packaging - Some examples 1.3.2 Preconsiderations for designing nanoscale interconnects 1.3.3 Compatitibility of ACANWF to industrial applications 1.3.4 Demands to the film 1.4 Resumée - Strategy 2 NW fabrication by electodeposition and synthesis-property relationships 2.1 Templates for NW electrodeposition 2.1.1 Anodized Al2O3 (AAO) 2.1.2 Track-etched polymer membranes 2.2 Template-assisted Electrochemical Deposition (ECD) of NWs 2.2.1 Concept 2.2.2 Deposition modes 2.2.3 In_uences of other physical parameters 2.2.4 Errors and error mechanisms 2.2.5 Deposition in chemically functionalized AAO 2.3 Synthesis-property relationships for single NWs 2.3.1 NiNWs 2.3.2 AgNWs 2.4 Resumée . 3 Growth processes in mesoporous templates 3.1 Relevance for mechanistic investigations 3.2 Processes during NW growth 3.2.1 Electrode kinetics 3.2.2 Diffusion 3.2.3 Interactions with pore walls 3.3 Model systems 3.3.1 DeLevie's model for porous electrodes 3.3.2 Model verification 3.3.3 Model adaptation to non-ideal behaviour 3.4 Resumée 4 Implementation of nanowire arrays into microelectronic packaging 4.1 Adhesive Bonding 4.1.1 Adhesion by thin adhesive layers 4.1.2 Thermocompression bonds 4.2 Nanosoldering 4.2.1 Deposition of low melting point materials 4.2.2 Segmented nanowires 4.3 Resumée 5 Conclusion and perspectives 5.1 Conclusion 5.2 Perspectives on further investigations 6 Appendices 6.1 Technical equipment 6.2 Experimental methods 6.3 Selected characterisation techniques 6.4 Supplementary Information 6.5 Glossary 6.6 List of publications & presentations Bibliography

Heterojunctions of CuInSe2 (CIS) nanowires with cadmium sulfide (CdS) were fabricated demonstrating for the first time, vertically aligned nanowires of CIS in the conventional Mo/CIS/CdS stack. These devices were studied for their material and electrical characteristics to provide a better understanding of the transport phenomena governing the operation of heterojunctions involving CIS nanowires. Removal of several key bottlenecks was crucial in achieving this. For example, it was found that to fabricate alumina membranes on molybdenum substrates, a thin interlayer of tungsten had to be inserted. A qualitative model was proposed to explain the difficulty in fabricating anodized aluminum oxide (AAO) membranes directly on Mo. Experimental results were used to corroborate this model. Subsequently, a general procedure to use any material that can be deposited using sputtering or evaporation as a back contact for nanowires grown using AAO templates was developed. Experimental work to demonstrate this by transferring thin AAO templates onto flexible Polyimide (PI) substrates was performed. This pattern transfer approach opens doors for a wide variety of applications on almost any substrate. Any material that can be deposited by physical means can then be used as a back contact. Electron-beam induced deposition using a liquid precursor (LP-EBID) was used to selectively grow preconceived patterns of compound semiconductor (CdS) nanoparticles. Stoichiometric CdS nanoparticle patterns were grown successfully using this method. They were structurally and optically characterized indicating high purity deposits. This approach is promising because it marries the precision of e-beam lithography with the versatility of solution based deposition methods.

A highly self-ordered hexagonal array of cylindrical pores has been fabricated by anodizing a thin film of Al on substrate and subsequent growth of GaN and InGaN in these nanoholes has been performed. This AAO template-based synthesis method provides a low cost process to fabricate GaN-based nanomaterials fabrication. / Singapore-MIT Alliance (SMA)