Large format 3D printing of thermoplastic polymers is a fast growing technology for industrial tools manufacturing and enables the production of meters long workpiece in a fraction of time, material and cost than conventional subtractive solutions. Due to the scale and timing imposed by the industry, Large Format Additive Manufacturing (LFAM) is mostly based on screw extrusion of thermoplastic pellets offering a significantly higher deposition rate and lower material costs compared to the well-known filament extrusion 3D printing (FFF). Carbon fiber reinforced polymers are commonly used in large-scale 3D printing as they minimize distortions and internal stresses during deposition preventing delamination and failure of the printed component. The technology stands out for the exceptional melt deposition rate; the lack of a temperature-controlled build chamber, and the low surface-to-volume proportion of the printed strand, making the temperature management of the deposited material particularly challenging in large-scale 3D printing. Print overcooling may lead to poor adhesion between layers eventually resulting in delamination, excessive heat build-up, on the other hand, is likely to result in sagging and print failure. Print thermal behavior and temperature management are closely related to material, part design and deposition strategy. Even though numerous software solutions for predictive process simulation as well as active feedback print controls for parameters optimization are emerging, common practice still relies on restricted set of strategies deduced by trial and error testing sessions; the best printing configuration is specifically custom-made for each print, an approach that could severely hinder the technology potential. This research is conducted as part of the project of CMS S.p.a., a company specialized in the production of CNC multi-axis machining centers, to develop and market an all-around tool manufacturing solution that would combine milling and Screw Extrusion Additive Manufacturing (SEAM). The study aims to develop a flexible and versatile cooling model that can predict the best process window for large-scale additive manufactured parts and automatically generate the best printing parameters for a generic printing strategy according to part material and shape. Next, the model was incorporated inside a path generation slicing software that operates with the same process parameters, unique solution on the market. Any given material is described by a specific set of variables that can be experimentally derived using a simple standardized procedure. Four industrially relevant materials were investigated for thermal model and software validation. In the framework of large format 3D printed tool manufacturing, 40 wt% carbon fiber reinforced polyamide 6 (PA6) and 20 wt% carbon fiber reinforced acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), polycarbonate (PC), and polyetherimide (PEI) play a strategic role in most applications. In addition, the research offers a physical, mechanical and thermal characterization of the printed workpiece providing a comprehensive guideline for part design, arrangement, and thermal compensation for traditional CFRP manufacturing tools. Finally, for each material, a real tool manufacturing case study and post-processed surface qualification is presented.

The goal of this work is to develop and characterize a manufacturing process that is able to create metal matrix composites with complex cellular geometries. The novel manufacturing method uses two distinct additive manufacturing processes: i) fabrication of patternless molds for cellular metal castings and ii) printing an advanced cellular ceramic for embedding in a metal matrix. However, while the use of AM greatly improves the freedom in the design of MMCs, it is important to identify the constraints imposed by the process and its process relationships. First, the author investigates potential differences in material properties (microstructure, porosity, mechanical strength) of A356 — T6 castings resulting from two different commercially available Binder Jetting media and traditional 'no-bake' silica sand. It was determined that they yielded statistically equivalent results in four of the seven tests performed: dendrite arm spacing, porosity, surface roughness, and tensile strength. They differed in sand tensile strength, hardness, and density. Additionally, two critical sources of process constraints on part geometry are examined: (i) depowdering unbound material from intricate casting channels and (ii) metal flow and solidification distances through complex mold geometries. A Taguchi Design of Experiments is used to determine the relationships of important independent variables of each constraint. For depowdering, a minimum cleaning diameter of 3 mm was determined along with an equation relating cleaning distance as a function of channel diameter. Furthermore, for metal flow, choke diameter was found to be significantly significant variable. Finally, the author presents methods to process complex ceramic structure from precursor powders via Binder Jetting AM technology to incorporate into a bonded sand mold and the subsequently casted metal matrix. Through sintering experiments, a sintering temperature of 1375 °C was established for the ceramic insert (78% cordierite). Upon printing and sintering the ceramic, three point bend tests showed the MMCs had less strength than the matrix material likely due to the relatively high porosity developed in the body. Additionally, it was found that the ceramic metal interface had minimal mechanical interlocking and chemical bonding limiting the strength of the final MMCs. / Ph. D.

One of the major limitations in Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), a form of additive manufacturing, is the lack of composites with superior mechanical properties. Traditionally, carbon and glass fibers are widely used to improve the physical properties of polymeric matrices. However, the blending methods lead to fiber breakage, preventing generation of long fiber reinforced filaments essential for printing load-bearing components. Our approach to improve tensile properties of the printed parts was to use in-situ composites to avoid fiber breakage during filament generation. In the filaments generated, we used thermotropic liquid crystalline polymers (TLCPs) to reinforce acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and a high performance thermoplastic, polyphenylene sulfide (PPS). The TLCPs are composed of rod-like monomers which are highly aligned under extensional kinematics imparting excellent one-dimensional tensile properties. The tensile strength and modulus of the 40 wt.% TLCP/ABS filaments was improved by 7 and 20 times, respectively. On the other hand, the 67 wt.% TLCP/PPS filament tensile strength and modulus were improved by 2 and 12 times, respectively. The filaments were generated using dual extrusion technology to produce nearly continuously reinforced filaments and to avoid matrix degradation. Rheological tests were taken advantage of to determine the processing conditions. Dual extrusion technology allowed plasticating the matrix and the reinforcing polymer separately in different extruders. Then continuous streams of TLCP were injected below the TLCP melting temperature into the matrix polymer to avoid matrix degradation. The blend was then passed through a series of static mixers, subdividing the layers into finer streams, eventually leading to nearly continuous fibrils which were an order of magnitude lower in diameter than those of the carbon and glass fibers. The composite filaments were printed below the melting temperature of the TLCPs, and the conditions were determined to avoid the relaxation of the order in the TLCPs. On printing, a matrix-like printing performance was obtained, such that the printer was able to take sharp turns in comparison with the traditionally used fibers. Moreover, the filaments led to a significant improvement in the tensile properties on using in FFF and other conventional technologies such as injection and compression molding. / Doctor of Philosophy / In this work two thermoplastic matrices, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and polyphenylene sulfide (PPS), were reinforced with higher melting thermoplastics of superior properties called thermotropic liquid crystalline polymers (TLCPs). This was done so that the resulting filaments could be 3D-printed without melting the TLCPs. The goal of this work was to generate nearly continuous reinforcement in the filaments and to avoid matrix degradation, and, hence, a technology called dual extrusion technology was used for the filament generation. The temperatures required for filament generation were determined using rheology, which involves the study of flow behavior of complex fluids. Dual extrusion technology allows processing of the constituent polymers separately at different temperatures, followed by a continuous injection of multiple TLCP-streams into the matrix polymers. In addition, the use of static mixers (metallic components kept in the path of flow to striate incoming streams) leads to further divisions of the TLCP-streams which are eventually drawn by pulling to orient the TLCP phase. The resulting filaments exhibited specific properties (normalized tensile properties) higher than aluminum and contained fibers that were nearly continuous, highly oriented, and an order in magnitude lower in diameter than those of carbon and glass fiber, which are commonly used reinforcements. High alignment and lower fiber diameter are essential for printing smoother printed parts. The filaments were intended to be printed without melting the TLCPs. However, previous studies involving the use of TLCP reinforced composites in conventional technologies have reported the occurrence of orientation relaxation on postprocessing, which decreases their tensile v properties. Therefore, temperatures required for 3D printing were determined using compression molding to retain filament properties on printing to the maximum extent. On printing using an unmodified 3D printer, parts were printed by taking 180º turns during material deposition. Contrarily, the use of continuous carbon fibers required a modified 3D printer to allow impregnation during 3D printing. Moreover, the performance comparison showed that the continuous carbon fibers could not be deposited in tighter loops. The properties of the printed parts were higher than those obtained on using short fibers and approaching those of the continuous fiber composites.

Human beings have a touch and force estimation mechanism beneath their feet. They use this feeling of touch and force to maintain balance, walk, run and perform various agile motions. This paper presents a new sensor platform beneath the humanoid feet, enabled by a pragmatic model based compliant foot design and sensor configuration that mimics the human tactile sensory system for contact force measurement in humanoid robots. Unlike previous force sensor based approaches, the system is defined as a total and sufficient method of Ground Reaction Force (GRF) and Zero Moment Point (ZMP) measurement for balancing and walking using contact force feedback in mid to full sized humanoids. The conventional systems for the GRF and ZMP measurement are made of heavy metallic parts that tend to be bulky and vulnerable to inertial noises upon high acceleration. In addition to low cost and reliable operation, the proposed system can withstand shock and enable agile motion much like humans do with their footpad. The proposed foot is manufactured using state-of-the-art technique with elastomer padding which not only protects the sensors but also acts as a compliance beneath the foot giving integrity in structural design. This composite layer provides compliance and traction for foot collision while the contact surfaces are sampled for pressure distribution which can be mapped into three axis force and ZMP. A single step training process is required to relate the sensor readings to force measurement. The system’s capability of contact force measurement, subsequent ZMP estimation is experimentally verified with the application of appropriate software. Moreover, a simulation study has been conducted via Finite Element Analysis (FEA) of the footpad structure to analyze the proposed footpad structure. The experimental results demonstrate why this can be a major step toward a biomimetic, affordable yet robust contact force and ZMP measurement method for humanoid robots. This work was supported by the Office of Naval Research, Grant N00014-15-1-2128 as part of development of Project SAFFiR (Shipboard Autonomous Firefighting Robot). / Master of Science / How we interact with the surfaces in contact with us has a crucial role for balancing and walking with agility. The biological touch and force measurement systems in human is currently unmatched, not even mimicked in a significant way in the state-of-the-art humanoid robots’ systems. Human beings use this feeling of touch and force beneath the feet to maintain balance, walk, run and perform various agile motions. This research aims to find a holistic system in humanoid robot’s feet design that can mimic this human characteristics of force estimation beneath the feet and using that estimation for balancing and walking. A practical model based sensor configuration is derived from the rigorous study of human and humanoid robot’s feet contact with the ground. The sensors are tactile in nature, and unlike previous below feet based approaches, the system is defined as a total and sufficient system of Ground Reaction Force (GRF) and Center of Pressure (CoP) measurement. The conventional systems for this purpose are not only highly expensive but also having error in quantification during accelerated movement. The proposed foot is designed following the practical model derived and manufactured using the state-of-the-art mechanism for having a soft cushion between the sensors and the contact surfaces. In addition to low cost and reliable operation, the proposed system can withstand shock and enable agile motion much like humans do with their footpad. The quantification of the forces and pressure from the sensor readings and developed using appropriate software and algorithms. The system’s capability of contact force measurement, subsequent Center of Pressure measurement is experimentally verified with the application of appropriate software. Moreover, a simulation study has been conducted of the footpad structure to analyze the proposed footpad structure. The experimental results demonstrate why this can be a major step toward a biomimetic, affordable yet robust contact force and Center of Pressure measurement method for human-like robots.

The overall goal of this work is to improve the structural performance of cellular structures in bending applications by incorporating tensegrity behavior using long continuous fibers. The designs are inspired by the hierarchical cellular structure composition present in pomelo fruit and the structural behavior of tensegrity structures. A design method for analyzing and predicting the behavior of the structures is presented. A novel manufacturing method is developed to produce the cellular structures with tensegrity behavior through the combination additive manufacturing and metal casting techniques. Tensegrity structures provide high stiffness to mass ratio with all the comprising elements experiencing either tension or compression. This research investigates the possibility of integrating tensegrity behavior with cellular structure mechanics and provides a design procedure in this process. The placement of fibers in an octet cellular structure was determined such that tensegrity behavior was achieved. Furthermore, using finite element analysis the bending performance was evaluated and the influence of fibers was measured using the models. The overall decrease in bending stress was 66.6 %. Extending this analysis, a design strategy was established to help designers in selecting fiber diameter based on the dimensions and material properties such that the deflection of the overall structure can be controlled. This research looks to Additive Manufacturing (AM) as a means to introduce tensegrity behavior in cellular structures. By combining Binder Jetting and metal casting a controlled reliable process is shown to produce aluminum octet-cellular structures with embedded fibers. 3D-printed sand molds embedded with long continuous fibers were used for metal casting. The fabricated structures were then subjected to 4 point bending tests to evaluate the effects of tensegrity behavior on the cellular mechanics. Through this fabrication and testing process, this work addresses the gap of evaluating the performance of tensegrity behavior. The overall strength increase by 30%. The simulation and experimental results were then compared to show the predictability of this process with errors of 2% for octet structures without fibers and 6% for octet structures with fibers. / Master of Science

This thesis is concerned with the development of methods and models to aid in optimization and development of new materials for Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF). We demonstrate a novel FFF nozzle design to enable the first measurements of in-situ rheology inside FFF nozzles, which is critical for part performance by ensuring that the polymer extrudate is flowing at an appropriate temperature and flow rate during the part build process. Testing was performed using Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene filament and a modified Monoprice Maker Select 3D printer. Tests using the default temperature control settings of the printer showed an 11 °C drop in temperature and significant fluctuations in pressure, during printing and while idle, of ± 2 °C and +/-14 kPa. These deviations were eliminated at lower flow rates with a properly calibrated proportional–integral–derivative (PID) system. At high flow rates, drops in temperature as high as 6.5 °C were observed even with a properly calibrated PID, providing critical input to the impact of flow rate and PID calibration on polymer melt temperature inside FFF nozzles. Pressure readings ranging from 140-6900 kPa were measured over the range of filament feed rates and corresponding extrusion flow rates. Theoretical predictions of pressure profiles, assuming a powerlaw fluid model, matched well with experimental results. Our nozzle prototype succeeded in measuring internal conditions of FFF nozzles for the first time, thereby providing several important insights into the printing process which are vital for monitoring and improving FFF printed parts. Furthermore, finite difference simulations based on first principles analysis are presented which are capable of quantifying the effect of processing conditions on the properties of semicrystalline parts made by FFF. Each layer was modelled as a rectangular cross section which was broken down into smaller elements for modelling. Crystallinity of each element was calculated using a parallel Avrami model which accounts for changes in crystallization rate due to temperature and multiple crystallization mechanisms. The amount of polymer diffusion, also referred to as the degree of healing, was calculated using a novel incremental diffusion model which accounted for not only changes in reptation time due to temperature but also restrictions to healing due to crystallinity. To the authors knowledge, this is the first healing model capable of accounting for the effect of crystallinity on healing and is relevant to any process involving healing of crystalline interfaces; not just FFF. Cumulative shear stresses between each layer and at the bottom of the part were also calculated for the first time using a force balance model by assuming constant shear strain throughout each layer. Simulations were performed using typical printing conditions for polyether ether ketone. In the first layer of a 24 layer part, the average degree of crystallinity, healing, and shear stress were 25.0%, 53.8% and 19.4 MPa respectively. The degree of crystallinity and healing at layer 22 (which represented the steady state values) were 18.4-25.0% and 51.4% respectively. When crystallinity was not accounted for, varying the printing parameters and material properties supported the use of high temperatures and specific heat in addition to a low printing speed, heat transfer coefficient, and thermal conductivity to maximize part properties. These conditions also supported crystallization, however, which led to a simultaneous reduction in the part properties when crystallinity was taken into account. These contradictory effects will need to be considered when optimizing the printing parameters, though the optimal balance will be highly dependent on the material used and the limitations of the printer. Experimental validation of the accuracy of the heat transfer and polymer diffusion models was performed using an amorphous polymer (polyether imide). Single road wide parts were printed at various nozzle temperatures, bed temperatures, and printing speeds and the results were compared to the simulated results. The predicted shear stress in the bottom of the part ranged from 2.3-3.8 MPa and correlated to warpages at the corners of each part of 1.2-2.4 mm. A linear increase in warpage with predicted shear stress was observed supporting the shear stress model. Predicted degrees of healing ranged from 2-90% but the experimental results ranged from 15-36%. Results of the healing model underpredicted strength at low printing speeds and over predicted strength at high printing speeds. The experimental validations showed the capabilities of the models, but the effect of printing speed will need to be investigated further to improve the accuracy of the healing model. / MS / This thesis is concerned with the development of methods and models to aid in optimizing a type of 3D printing known as Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF). We demonstrate a novel FFF nozzle design to enable the first measurements of the temperature and pressure within FFF nozzles, which is critical for ensuring that the printer is printing at the appropriate temperature and flow rate. Testing was performed using a material known as Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene and a modified Monoprice Maker Select 3D printer. Tests using the default temperature control settings of the printer showed an 11 °C drop in temperature and significant fluctuations in pressure, during printing and while idle, of ± 2 °C and +/-14 kPa. These deviations were eliminated at lower flow rates with a properly calibrated temperature control system. At high flow rates, drops in temperature as high as 6.5 °C were observed even with a properly calibrated temperature control system, providing critical input to the impact of flow rate and temperature control calibration on the temperature of the polymer melt inside FFF nozzles. Pressure readings ranging from 140-6900 kPa were measured over the range of extrusion flow rates tested. Theoretical predictions of the pressure within the nozzles matched well with the experimental results. Our nozzle prototype succeeded in measuring internal conditions of FFF nozzles for the first time, thereby providing several important insights into the printing process which are vital for monitoring and improving FFF printed parts. Furthermore, simulations of the FFF process are presented which can quantify the effect of processing conditions on the properties of FFF parts made from materials which can crystallize. Each layer was modelled as a rectangular cross section which was broken down into smaller elements for modelling. Crystallinity of each element was calculated using a model which can account for changes in the rate of crystallization due to temperature as well as multiple types of crystallization. The strength of the interlayer bonds was calculated using a novel model which accounts for the effects of temperature and crystallinity. To the authors knowledge, this is the first bonding model capable of accounting for the effect of crystallinity on bonding and is relevant to any process involving bonding of crystalline materials; not just FFF. The shear stress between each layer and at the bottom of the part was also calculated for the first time by balancing thermal and shear stresses of each layer. Simulations were performed using typical printing conditions for a high performance polymer (polyether ether ketone). In the first layer of a 24 layer part, the average amount of crystallinity, bonding, and shear stress were 25.0%, 53.8% and 19.4 MPa respectively. The degree of crystallinity and healing at layer 22 (which represented the majority of the part) were 18.4-25.0% and 51.4% respectively. When crystallinity was not accounted for, varying the printing parameters and material properties supported the use of high temperatures and specific heat in addition to a low printing speed, heat transfer coefficient, and thermal conductivity to maximize part properties. These conditions also supported crystallization, however, which led to a simultaneous reduction in the part properties when crystallinity was considered. These contradictory effects will need to be considered when optimizing the printing parameters, though the optimal balance will be highly dependent on the material used and the limitations of the printer. Experimental validation of the accuracy of the heat transfer and bonding models was performed using an amorphous polymer (polyether imide). Single road wide parts were printed at various nozzle temperatures, bed temperatures, and printing speeds and the results were compared to the simulated results. The predicted shear stress in the bottom of the part ranged from 2.3-3.8 MPa and correlated to the corners of each part peeling 1.2-2.4 mm from the printer. A linear increase in the experimental peeling with predicted shear stress was observed, supporting the shear stress model. Predicted bonding ranged from 2-90% of the strength of the material, but the experimental results ranged from 15-36%. Results of the bonding model underpredicted strength at low printing speeds and over predicted strength at high printing speeds. The experimental validations showed the capabilities of the models, but the effect of printing speed will need to be investigated further to improve the accuracy of the bonding model.

The hybridization of direct write (DW) and additive manufacturing (AM) technologies to create additively manufactured electronics (AME) has enabled the integration of electrical functionality to form multifunctional AM components. Current work in AME has demonstrated the integration of conductive traces into and onto geometries and form factors that are not possible through traditional electronics packaging processes. This has largely been accomplished by using AM and DW technology to deposit conductive inks to form interconnects on the surface of AM substrates or within multimaterial AM geometries. However, the requisite thermal post-processing and high resistivity of the conductive inks and the limitations in thermal and dielectric performance of printable substrates commonly used in AME restrict the capabilities of these parts. This thesis proposes an alternative process for the conformal deposition of low resistivity traces on additively manufactured all-aromatic polyimides (AM-PI) without the use of conductive inks. This is accomplished through the selective patterning of laser induced graphene (LIG), a porous 3D graphene fabricated via laser irradiation, onto the AM-PI. While the resultant LIG is conductive, its resistivity is further reduced by the electrodeposition of copper (Cu-LIG). In this thesis, the synthesis of LIG on AM-PI, thermally post processed to 240℃, 300℃, and 450℃, is demonstrated and characterized through sheet resistance measurements and Raman spectroscopy. AM-PI post-processed to 300℃ demonstrated the lowest resistivity LIG formation (13.8 Ω/square). The resistivity of Cu-LIG is compared to an industry standard silver ink (Micromax CB028) used in direct write hybrid manufacturing applications. Cu-LIG was found to have a measured resistivity (1.39e-7 Ω·m), two orders of magnitude lower than the measured resistivity of the CB028 silver ink (1.62e-5 Ω·m). Additionally, the current capacity of the Cu-LIG was demonstrated and Joule heating of the material was observed via IR thermography. Cu-LIG demonstrated no failure of conductive trace or substrate under 5A of current for 2 minutes, heating to a maximum recorded temperature of 76.3℃. Several multifunctional components were fabricated as case studies to further validate the process. Several small passive electronic devices (e.g., a heater and an interdigitated capacitor) are fabricated to demonstrate selective deposition of complex copper traces. The fabrication of an Archimedes spiral on a hemispherical substrate via Cu-LIG is completed to demonstrate the ability to use the process to fabricate conformal conductive traces. An LED circuit is fabricated on a face-center cubic AM-PI lattice which demonstrates multi-planar fabrication on geometrically complex 3D printed substrates. / Master of Science / The hybridization of direct write (DW) and additive manufacturing (AM) technologies to create additively manufactured electronics (AME) has enabled the fabrication of AM components which have electronic functionality. Current work in AME has demonstrated the integration of conductive traces into and onto geometries and form factors that are not possible through traditional electronics packaging processes. This has largely been accomplished through the deposition of conductive inks to form interconnects on the surface of AM substrates or within multimaterial AM geometries. However, these conductive inks require thermal post-processing temperatures which exceed the thermal performance of common AM substrates. The dielectric performance of AM substrates is also restrictive to the capabilities of these parts. This thesis proposes an alternative process for the conformal deposition of low resistivity traces on high performance additively manufactured all-aromatic polyimides (AM-PI) without the use of conductive inks. This is accomplished through the selective patterning of laser induced graphene (LIG), a porous 3D graphene fabricated via laser irradiation, onto the AM-PI. While the resultant LIG is conductive, its resistivity is further reduced by the electrodeposition of copper (Cu-LIG). In this thesis, the synthesis of LIG on AM-PI, thermally post processed to 240℃, 300℃, and 450℃, is demonstrated and characterized through sheet resistance measurements and Raman spectroscopy. AM-PI post-processed to 300℃ demonstrated the lowest sheet resistance LIG formation (13.8 Ω/square). The resistivity of Cu-LIG is compared to an industry standard silver ink (Micromax CB028) used in direct write hybrid manufacturing applications. Cu-LIG was found to have a measured resistivity (1.39e-7 Ω·m), two orders of magnitude lower than the measured resistivity of the CB028 silver ink (1.62e-5 Ω·m). Additionally, the thermal performance and current capacity of the Cu-LIG was demonstrated by observing resistive heating of the material under current load via IR thermography. Cu-LIG demonstrated no failure of conductive trace or substrate under 5A of current for 2 minutes, heating to a maximum recorded temperature of 76.3℃. Several multifunctional components were fabricated as case studies to further validate the process. A heater and an interdigitated capacitor are fabricated to demonstrate selective deposition of complex copper traces. The fabrication of an Archimedes spiral on a dome via Cu-LIG is completed to demonstrate the ability to use the process to fabricate conformal conductive traces. An LED circuit is fabricated on an AM-PI lattice which demonstrates multi-planar fabrication on geometrically complex 3D printed substrates.

In this paper, a novel approach is utilized to investigate the deformation mechanisms at the microstructural level in 3D printed alloys. The complex in-situ heat treatments during 3D printing leaves a unique and complicated microstructure in the as-built 3D printed metals, particularly alloys. The microstructure is made of a hierarchical stacking of some interconnected geometrical shapes, namely meltpools, grains, and cells. These are connected to each other by boundaries that might have different element compositions, and consequently, material properties, compared to the interior region of each geometrical unit. Deformation mechanisms in this microstructure are still highly unexplored, mainly because of the challenges on the way of performing experiments at the micrometer length scale. In this work, we establish an image processing framework that directly converts the SEM images taken from the microstructure of 3D printed 316L stainless steel alloys into CAD models. The model of the complicated microstructure is then scaled up, and the scaled model is 3D printed using polymeric materials. For 3D printing these samples, two polymers with contrasting mechanical properties are used. Distribution of these two polymers mimics the arrangement of soft and stiff regions in the microstructure of 3D printed alloys. These representative samples are subjected to mechanical loads and digital image correlation is utilized to investigate the deformation mechanisms, particularly the delocalization of stress concentration and also the crack propagation, at the microstructural level of 3D printed metals. Besides experiments, computational modeling using finite element method is also performed to study the same deformation mechanisms at the microstructure of 3D printed 316L stainless steel. Our results show that the hierarchical arrangement of stiff and soft phases in 3D printed alloys delocalizes the stress concentration and has the potential to make microstructures with significantly improved damage tolerance capabilities. / Master of Science / Many researchers have studied the impacts of laser parameters on the bulk material properties of SLM printed parts; few if any have studied how these parts break at a microstructural level. In this work we show how SLM printed parts with complex microstructures including grains, meltpools, and cells, deform and break. The cellular network that occurs in some SLM printed parts leads to a multi-material hierarchical structure, with a stiff network of thin boundaries, and a bulk "matrix" of soft cell material. This leads to similar properties as some composites, whereby the stiff network of cell boundaries leads to increased damage tolerance. We show both computationally through finite element analysis, and experimentally through multi-material 3D fabrication, that the microstructure leads to increased crack length in failure, as well as lower toughness loss and strength loss in the event of a crack. Essentially, the complex nature of the formation of these parts (high heating and cooling rates from laser melting) leads to a beneficial microstructure for damage tolerance that has not been studied from this perspective before.

Yes / Three-dimensional printing (3DP) has the potential to cause a paradigm shift in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, enabling personalised medicines to be produced on-demand. To facilitate integration into healthcare, non-destructive characterisation techniques are required to ensure final product quality. Here, the use of process analytical technologies (PAT), including near infrared spectroscopy (NIR) and Raman confocal microscopy, were evaluated on paracetamol-loaded 3D printed cylindrical tablets composed of an acrylic polymer (Eudragit L100-55). Using a portable NIR spectrometer, a calibration model was developed, which predicted successfully drug concentration across the range of 4–40% w/w. The model demonstrated excellent linearity (R2 = 0.996) and accuracy (RMSEP = 0.63%) and results were confirmed with conventional HPLC analysis. The model maintained high accuracy for tablets of a different geometry (torus shapes), a different formulation type (oral films) and when the polymer was changed from acrylic to cellulosic (hypromellose, HPMC). Raman confocal microscopy showed a homogenous drug distribution, with paracetamol predominantly present in the amorphous form as a solid dispersion. Overall, this article is the first to report the use of a rapid ‘point-and-shoot’ approach as a non-destructive quality control method, supporting the integration of 3DP for medicine production into clinical practice. / Open Access funded by Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council United Kingdom (EPSRC), UK for their financial support (EP/L01646X).

Yes / Despite the abundant use of polyethylene oxides (PEOs) and their integration as an excipient in numerous pharmaceutical products, there have been no previous reports of applying this important thermoplastic polymer species alone to fused deposition modelling (FDM) 3D printing. In this work, we have investigated the manufacture of oral doses via FDM 3D printing by employing PEOs as a backbone polymer in combination with polyethylene glycol (PEG). Blends of PEO (molecular weight 100 K, 200 K, 300 K, 600 K or 900 K) with PEG 6 K (plasticiser) and a model drug (theophylline) were hot-melt extruded. The resultant filaments were used as a feed for FDM 3D printer to fabricate oral dosage forms (ODFs) with innovative designs. ODFs were designed in a radiator-like geometry with connected paralleled plates and inter-plate spacing of either 0.5, 1, 1.5 or 2 mm. X-ray diffraction patterns of the filaments revealed the presence of two distinctive peaks at 2θ = 7° and 12°, which can be correlated to the diffraction pattern of theophylline crystals. Blends of PEO and PEG yielded filaments of variable mechanically resistance (maximum load at break of 357, 608, 649, 882, 781 N for filament produced with PEO 100 K, 200 K, 300 K, 600 K or 900 K, respectively). Filaments of PEO at a molecular weight of 200–600 K were compatible with FDM 3D printing process. Further increase in PEO molecular weight resulted in elevated shear viscosity (>104 Pa.S) at the printing temperature and hindered material flow during FDM 3D printing process. A minimal spacing (1 mm) between parallel plates of the radiator-like design deemed essential to boost drug release from the structure. This is the first report of utilising this widely used biodegradable polymer species (PEOs and PEG) in FDM 3D printing.