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This project describes and interprets the results from the Renbaan Cave excavation and situates the site in the context of contemporary Later Stone Age studies in the southwestern Cape. It is designed to complement the research of professor John Parkington. It is argued that settlement and subsistance patterns at Renbaan Cave reflect similar patterns to those noted at other small cave/shelter sites in the research area. The availability of radiocarbon dates however, forces us to reconsider and question our previous perception of the distribution and occupation of late Holocene sites in the southwestern Cape. Important behavioural information has been located in the analysis of the stone artefact assemblage and new avenues of enquiry are suggested.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Master of Science. September 2016. / The Iron Age is a very critical aspect of South Africa’s history. It represents a technology that laid a solid foundation for the development of South Africa in terms of its economy, politics and society. It is therefore imperative to study Iron Age, or rather its remnants such as stone-walled structures and ash middens because these give insight into this critical time period’s technology and those responsible for it. Remote sensing spatial technology provides the opportunity not only to study these Iron Age remnants but to save time and resources while doing so through satellite imagery. This study employs remote sensing by comparing different multispectral satellite images ̶ GeoEye 1 and SPOT 5 ̶ to find the optimum platform to detect key archaeological remnants  ash middens  from the Iron Age period in the Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve located in Southern Gauteng, South Africa. The performance of GeoEye 1 and SPOT 5 in detecting ash middens was compared through supervised classification techniques, Support Vector Machine and Maximum Likelihood Classification, on different band combinations of the two images. Overall, the band combination of Green, Red and NIR is the best performing on both SPOT 5 and GeoEye 1 compared to Green, Red, and Mid IR on SPOT 5 and Green, Red, and Blue on GeoEye 1. However, higher accuracy of results for the detection of ash middens were obtained on the GeoEye 1 platform. The GeoEye platform performed better than the SPOT platform in the detection and analysis of ash middens. Key Words: Ash Middens, GeoEye, Remote Sensing, Satellite Imagery, SPOT / LG2017

Ochre is a ubiquitous artefact in Middle Stone Age (MSA) contexts throughout Africa and the Near East. Archaeological evidence for the abrasive processing of ochre to extract pigment powder becomes increasingly prevalent after 100 ka. The habitual exploitation of ochre is interpreted as evidence for symbolism, a proxy for the origin of language and as a key element of ‘symbolic’ and ‘modern’ human behaviour. Evolutionary explanations agree that ochre and the products of its processing played a significant role in the adaptive strategies of early modern humans, but they differ in the functions assigned to it. I therefore ask the following question: What role did symbolic and functional applications of ochre play in the enhancement of prehistoric technology, and how may these have functioned to promote and maintain social relations within MSA Homo sapiens societies? With the aim of answering this question, I follow a chaîne opératoire approach to elucidate the exploitation of ochre during the MSA. First, I present the results of an experimental study devised to infer the methods employed to process ochre. It is demonstrated that functional data derived from actualistic experiments can enhance our understanding prehistoric behaviour. Second, I describe one of the oldest instances of a deliberate engraving on ochre at 100 ka to 85 ka. I consider the possibility that specific types of raw material were selected for engraving purposes and expand on whether all engraved depictions inevitably functioned in ‘symbolic’ contexts. The third objective entails the evaluation of an often cited functional hypothesis for ochre, namely the use of red ochre as a ‘hide-tanning’ ingredient. I also introduce and discuss three further functional hypotheses, namely those concerning the use of ochre as a form of mineral supplementation and detoxification agent, as a sunprotection element and as an insect repellent. Ethnoarchaeological research has proven to be informative in terms of revealing a range of functional uses for red ochre. I therefore consider how data derived from the Ovashimba of northern Namibia can enhance current understandings of ochre use in the MSA. I propose that in order to assess any hypothesis concerning the exploitation of ochre in the MSA methodically and in a scientific manner, it is necessary to engage with the theories and analytical methods of cognitive and technical sciences not normally viewed as applicable to archaeological enquiry.

Dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Magister Technologiae: Consumer Science Food and Nutrition, Durban University of Technology, 2011. / The objective of the study was to conduct a situational analysis of elderly people on state pension living in Umlazi, KwaZulu-Natal South Africa. The research focused on the socioeconomic status, dietary intake, nutritional status, and health status of this community. Methodology The sample comprised 270 (224 women and 46 men) randomly selected elderly people within the 12 wards of Umlazi. The methods used for assessment included a sociodemographic questionnaire which determined the socioeconomic status. A 24-hr recall questionnaire and food frequency questionnaire were used to determine dietary intake, while anthropometric measurements were conducted to determine the nutritional status. A health questionnaire, including a salt administration questionnaire was used to determine the health status of the elderly in this community. Trained field workers and nurses assisted in data collection and food consumption data was captured and analysed by a qualified dietician using Food Finder version 3.0 computer software program. Descriptive statistics (frequencies, means, standard deviations and confidence intervals) were determined with the assistance of a bio-statistician. Socio-demographic and health data were captured onto an Excel(R) spreadsheet by the researcher. These questionnaires were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows version 17, 0 software program. Results The majority of respondents lived in brick houses (84.8%) and the living space generally consisted of more than three rooms (87.4%). However, the majority of respondents who lived with >4 to 10 members were 67.4% whilst only 32.6% of households consisted of less than 4 members. The mean household size was 5.1 (±SD 2.9) people, this further illustrates that the majority of respondents lived with 5 people per household. Grandchildren were present in 70% of the households with a mean of 3 (±SD 5) grandchildren in each household. Results also indicate that 84.6% of the elderly were the bread winners in these households. The vast majority of 87.8% of the population had no other source of income. The majority of vi Pagevi respondents with an income had a total monthly income of R500- R1500 (82.9%) followed by R1501- R2500 (14.1%) and only 3% had more than R2500 total income. Food expenditure for most (80%) households was >R500 of the total income. Food shortages due to limited income were frequent in 54% of households who regularly experienced this problem, whilst 26% sometimes experienced shortages, 15.4% often encounted shortages whereas 2.6% encounted shortages seldomly and 2.2% never. A large majority of respondents owned electrical assets, the most commonly owned included a televison (80.3%) , a radio (75.5%) and a refrigerator (75.1). The majority of food items consumed were carbohydrate based and the portion sizes were relatively big, on average 1348.5g per day. The energy contribution from carbohydrates was 65% which is considered to be on the high side (WHO goals 55-75%). Protein intake was fairly common, with a 15% contribution to energy from total protein (WHO goals 10-15%). The frequency of vegetable and fruit intake was very low, the portion sizes were also small and did not meet the recommended daily intake. The energy contributions showed that 89.2% of the women consumed a diet that supplied <100% of Estimated Energy Requirements (EERs) and all the men consumed <100% of the EERs for energy. Sixty three percent of the women and 91.1% of the men consumed <100% of the EARs for protein. The mean carbohydrate intake in the sample was significantly higher than the EAR but the women consumed <100% of the EARs for carbohydrates (4.1%) and all men consumed >100% of the EARs. The majority of the vitamins for both genders indicated low intakes except for vitamin B12 and B6 in the case of men only. The majority of minerals indicated low scores for micronutrients except for iron (36.6% for men) and potassium (39.0% for men) which was consumed mostly by men than women. The mean Food Variety Score (FVS) (±SD) for all the foods consumed from all the food groups in a period of seven days was 25.8 (±14.6). The results revealed poor dietary diversity scoring. The cereal group had the highest mean variety score 5.3 (±2.5) followed by vegetables 4.5 (±2.6), fruit 3.5 (±3.1), flesh foods 3.2 (±1.6), vitamin A-rich fruit and the vegetable group 3.1 (±1.7). The anthropometric indices indicated that the mean age was 69.7 years (±SD 7.1) and mean weight of 76.5 kg (±SD 17.3). The BMI scores for the total group indicated that 52% of the respondents fell into the obese category (BMI = obese 1 >30, obese 2 >35 and obese 3> 40) and 24% of the respondents were overweight (BMI = 25-29.9). Only 20% were of moderate weight (BMI 18.5- 24.9). Although more men were overweight (34.2%) compared to 21.9% vii Pagevii of women, more women (60.1%) were obese compared to men (18.8%). The majority (83%) of the women were above the cut-off points for waist circumference ( 88cm) and 17% were within the normal values whilst 74% of the men were within recommended cut-off points ( 102cm) and only 26% exceeded the recommended scores. The results indicate that 77% of respondents were at risk of developing metabolic syndrome exceeding >0.5 waist-to-heightratio (WHTR) and 23% were at lower risk. However, the women showed a higher risk of 87.4% and men only 47.9% for metabolic risk. The correlation was significant at the p=0.01 level. There was thus as highly significant relationship between BMI and WHTR ratio for women. The health survey results indicated that 90% of the elderly population were in various stages of hypertension and 6% showed signs of developing hypertension. However, hypertension was more prevelant in women (91%) than in the men (83%). There was a statistical significant correlation (p=0.01) between waist circumference and systolic pressure for both women and men. A high percentage (82%) of the participants reported that they were currently on chronic medication whereas 18% were not using any chronic medication at the time. Although hypertension was prevalent in most respondents, it was followed by self reported diabetes (26.7%) and cancer (1.9%). Results show that elderly experienced problems with following ereas in the body skeletal joints (72.6%) as well as eyes and teeth were problematic in 75.9% of the respondents, followed by skin problems (29.6%) and ears and nose problems (28.6%). Results in the salt administrative questionnaire indicate that sodium intakes were below WHO goals <2000mg. Results also show that a high percentage of respondents (60%) generally never added salt to cooked food as the majority saw it as a health risk. Only 13% added it always to cooked food and 21% added it sometimes. Conclusions The results in the study indicate the high prevelance of poverty, food insecurity and poor nutritional and health status that compromises the quality of life of elderly living in this community. Recommendations Long-term intervention studies must be prioritised to address economic, health, social and demographic factors and future research is needed to cater for the growing needs of this population group.

Archaeology MSc Dissertation School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies Faculty of Science University of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg 2013 / Agropastoralists during the Iron Age established their settlements in the Limpopo Valley to take advantage of the rich floodplains of the Shashe-Limpopo confluence. Trade in ivory may have been a draw card in the earlier Zhizo period (AD 900), but good climate and increased rainfall helped to maintain a growing population which in turn contributed to the rise of complex society and the first state in southern Africa, i.e. Mapungubwe (AD 1250-1300). The population increase and the concomitant agricultural land use, together with several droughts, would have challenged livestock management. Using carbon signatures, J. Smith (2005) discovered that cattle were sustained on graze alone, indicating sufficient grass in the valley for pasture during the Iron Age. I have used spherulites found in cattle dung to investigate the use of the confluence vlei area. Vlei grass would have provided extra pasturage. I considered time and space to interpret samples. For the Zhizo and Leokwe periods, I examined 13 samples, including Castle Rock, of which six were positive. K2 had nine positive samples out of 17 while Transitional K2 had 20 positives samples. The TK2 results suggest there was a greater need for extra pasturage associated with drought from AD 1220 to 1250. The Mapungubwe period is represented by 11 samples and five yielded positive results while the Khami period yielded 12 positive results out of 26 samples. These results show a regular use of the confluence vlei during the Iron Age associated with dry conditions.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Johannesburg, November 2014. / My analysis of the lithics, shellfish and tortoise recovered from layers dating to between 11.8 and 9.7 ka at Klipdrift Cave (KDC), De Hoop Nature Reserve, southern Cape, provides new information on the Oakhurst technocomplex. A re-analysis of a sample of lithic artefacts from Matjes River Rock Shelter (MRS) indicates many technological similarities, but also unexpected differences, highlighting the need for detailed contextualised studies that could reveal the complexity of the Oakhurst Industry. The lithic artefacts were analysed following a typo-technological approach. The KDC Oakhurst shares many characteristics typical of this technocomplex from the southern Cape, for example in the dominance of quartzite, irregular and unstandardized flakes, the occurrence of irregular cores and typical large side and end scrapers. It differs from most coastal Oakhurst sites in the more intensive exploitation of quartz, and the presence of a morphological blade component, especially in the lowermost layers. Shellfish remains were identified to species level in terms of minimum number of individuals (MNI) and weight. The two main species are Dinoplax gigas, dominating in the lower part of the sequence, between 11.8 and 11.1 ka and Turbo sarmaticus that is more numerous thereafter. These species provide the highest energy yield in terms of kilojoules, estimated at 667 511 kilojoules for both species combined. The species composition at KDC reflects changing environmental conditions that may relate to the effect of the Younger Dryas event, changing from a sheltered sandy bay to a habitat with more exposed rocks and less sand after 11.1 ka. T. sarmaticus opercula, Cymbula oculus shells and tortoise medio-lateral humeri were measured to investigate whether human predation pressure could have affected their size. Although the sizes of T. sarmaticus opercula show some decrease through time suggesting human predation pressure on these molluscs, there is also a possibility that environmental factors may have affected Turbo growth. The tortoise sizes at KDC, and some other Oakhurst sites, are similar to that of the Middle Stone Age (MSA) but the KDC data are iv inconclusive on whether intensive harvesting had an effect on average tortoise size.

Recent studies on marriage patterns in South Africa have revealed a clear trend towards decreasing proportions of married women and an increase in age at first marriage (Udjo, 2001; Budlender et al., 2004). Despite marriage being one of the most important proximate determinants of fertility, the role of these nuptiality changes on the country’s decreasing fertility levels has not been adequately explored. Using data from the 1998 South African Demographic Survey, this paper fills this research gap by examining the marriage and fertility trends among African women in South Africa. The decision to focus on African women hinged on two basic factors; (1) available evidence shows that changes in marriage patterns are most notable in this racial group, and (2) African women have the highest fertility level relative to other racial groups. The results show that marriage patterns have been changing over time. The proportions married are low and late among African and rural women. There is an increase in the proportion of women who are cohabiting and never-married. Fertility levels are different for marital status, with the married and widowed women having the highest mean number of children ever born and the least number of children ever born is among the never-married women. Furthermore, the mean number of children ever born is among the highest in the older ages for all women. Kaplan-Meier estimates indicate that half of the divorced and widowed women have their first birth as early as age 18 years, compared to age 20 for the never-married and the cohabiting women, and age 22 for the married women. The mean age at first birth for African women is 19.7 years compared to 21.2 years for non-African women. Overall, socio-economic and demographic factors such as educational attainment, place of residence, marital status, race, and age have a significant effect on the age of a woman at first birth. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2009.

Retirement from work can be viewed from a number of standpoints: economic; medical; administrative and social. In South Africa research has mainly focused on social and economic factors with a strong bias towards state old age pensions and how retired people are more vulnerable to poverty as they are forced to share their pensions with their families and look after HIV/AIDS orphans (Noumbissi and Zuberi, 2001:45). This research will fill a gap by exploring the administrative aspect, the various policies that regulate retirement, and how these affect decisions to retire on individuals and the perceived effect on the performance of an organization. Gustman and Steinmeier (1991:98) argue that exits through retirement are one of the important labor market flows that shape the age structure of faculty, and help to determine the quality and costs of higher education thus it is worth investigating the policies that regulate this labor flow. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2010.