Thanks to globalization, which leads to an ever increasing growth in international trade and inevitably a vast emergence in shipping activities, environmental impact is receiving increasing attention around the world. Maritime industry is under great pressure to improve its performance towards greener practices. This study attempts to provide an insight to the feasible adoption of onshore power system (OPS) for ocean-going vessels (OGVs) in the container terminals in Hong Kong. Given that OGVs are the major contributors to pollutants like carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO) and various particulate matter (PM), it is of overriding importance to tackle and rectify the environmental impact of these pollutants, in particular in a densely populated port city like Hong Kong. As such, main focuses in this study laid in the environmental and financial benefits in adopting OPS technology in the container terminals in Hong Kong. Information of container vessel arrivals and engine emissions at Kwai Chung-Tsing Yi Container Terminals (KTCT) in 2011 are analyzed. By employing the energy-based approach, it is revealed that the use of OPS at KTCT could substantially reduce the CO2, SOx, NOx and PM10 levels within Hong Kong waters by 16%, 84%, 95% and 94% respectively. In addition, as far as financial benefits are concerned, this study adopted the life cycle cost analysis (LCCA), in which the capital investment cost, operational cost and maintenance cost of OPS are taken into account. Analytical data provide sound return on investment with a discounted payback period as low as 6.4 years, and up to 29% of annual energy cost saving when compared with traditional diesel powered OGVs as well. To further support the feasible implementation of OPS in Hong Kong, some real-life cases over the globe are gathered to contrast the successful adoption of OPS. Altogether with the recent compromised international standards for OPS and more stringent emission regulations enacted by International Maritime Organization (IMO), European Commission (EC) and California Air Resources Board (CARB), the commission of OPS in the container terminals in Hong Kong is just around the corner. This dissertation provides innovative management measures from an environmental perspective to promote the adoption of OPS at KTCT. Besides, incentive policy from the HKSAR Government should be expedited, stimulating the sustainable industrial practice in Hong Kong. / published_or_final_version / Environmental Management / Master / Master of Science in Environmental Management

Background: Air pollution is a serious concern all over the world, and there have been numerous studies showing its adverse effects on health outcomes including disease-specific hospitalization and mortality. Most of these studies were conducted in Western settings and focused on NO2, SO2, PM10 and black smoke; limited results on PM2.5 in Asia have been published. Objectives: This study attempted to identify association between PM2.5 concentration and daily mortality due to all-natural causes, cardiovascular diseases, and respiratory diseases in Hong Kong, a tropical city in Asia from 2008 to 2011. Methods: The study used a case-crossover study design with time-stratified referent selection strategy. The referents were selected on the same day of the week of the same month and year as the event day. In this way, biases due to autocorrelation, time trend, and seasonal pattern were controlled for by study design. Covariates including temperature, humidity, and gaseous pollutants (NO2, SO2, O3 and CO) were adjusted for by statistical modelling. The statistical method applied was Conditional Logistic Regression. Sensitive analyses using matched by month strategy were also conducted to check the robustness of the main analyses. The health outcome variables included were mortality due to all natural causes, cardiovascular disease, and respiratory disease. Each model was examined for effects of PM2.5 at each lag 0 through lag 5 day and, for the current and lag 1 day moving average (lag 0-1). Effects were measured in Excess Risks (ER) associated with 10 μg/m^3 increase in PM2.5. Results: Significant associations with PM2.5 were observed for mortality from all natural causes and cardiovascular disease at lag 0, lag 1, and lag 0-1; and from respiratory disease only at lag 1. At lag 0-1, PM2.5 was associated with mortality from all natural causes, cardiovascular disease, and respiratory disease with the ER (95% confidence interval) of 0.74% (95% CI: 0.29, 1.19), 1.4% (95% CI: 0.52, 2.27), and 0.67% (95% CI: -0.30, 1.64), respectively. After adjusting for each of the co-pollutants in two-pollutant model, the effect magnitude dropped except that one adjusting for CO. The ERs of mortality in co-pollutant models from all natural causes ranged from 0.23% to 1.72%, from cardiovascular disease ranged from 1.00% to 2.93%, and from respiratory disease ranged from -0.10% to 1.83%. The results were robust in sensitivity analyses. Conclusion: My study provides some information to support formulation of air quality control strategies and policies, and for updating air quality standards. Such information includes the overall and seasonal patterns of air pollutants and mortality in Hong Kong, as well as the excess risks of mortality associated with increase in PM2.5. Studies with individual data stratified for subgroups can be conducted in the future to investigate effect modification of lifestyle factors for the individuals and population. / published_or_final_version / Public Health / Master / Master of Public Health

Not available / text

Not available / text

Air pollution—both indoor and outdoor—results in more deaths and diseases in India than in any other country in the world. The first chapter in this dissertation explores why despite profoundly negative health consequences of indoor air pollution, most rural Indian households cook using traditional biomass fuel. Among many factors that contribute to households’ continued use of solid fuels, we focus on one: women’s intra-household status. We exploit Indian son preference: having a girl first child lowers women’s status relative to having a boy first child, and is therefore associated with lower likelihood of using clean fuel. This effect is found throughout the wealth distribution, and is not concentrated among households in states with a high child sex ratio or households where women have some education. The second chapter focuses on outdoor air pollution in India. We use a general equilibrium model of Indian economy to quantify the spillovers from a carbon tax on fossil fuels to local air quality and the health outcomes in urban India. We estimate that a $10/ton of Carbon tax on all fossil fuels will reduce CO2 emission by 10.7% from business-as-usual and save nearly 0.3 million urban lives from pollution related deaths while adding 0.2 percent to the GDP over the three decades from 2003 to 2030. We get this double dividend from carbon tax if the tax revenue is used to reduce existing distortionary taxes. Carbon tax is more progressive if the revenue is repatriated to households, but the GDP is slightly smaller than the base case under this regime. In the third chapter, we present the first VSL estimates from India using hedonic wage method with worker and job characteristics data from Employment and Unemployment Survey of India (EUS)—a large nationally representative survey that has not been used in this literature before. We estimate VSL of an average low-skilled urban Indian worker to be about $85,000 in 2004-05 (about 65 times the annual wage) at 2010 constant prices. Our estimates of VSL and VSL-to-income ratio are much lower than all previous estimates from India. Comparisons with estimates from other developing countries like China and Taiwan, however, suggest that our estimates are more reasonable. Our VSL estimate, if reliable, sets a lower threshold for investment in environment and public safety projects that can be justified using cost-benefit criteria.

Background: Most countries of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are experiencing a high rate of ur­banization accompanied with unplanned development resulting into sprawl of slums. The weath­er patterns and air pollution sources in most urban areas are changing with significant effects on health. Studies have established a link between environmental exposures, such as weather variation and air pollution, and adverse health outcomes. However, little is known about this relationship in urban populations of SSA where more than half the population reside in slums, or slum like conditions. A major reason for this is the lack of systematic collection of data on exposure and health outcomes. High quality prospective data collection and census registers still remain a great challenge. However, within small and spatially defined areas, dynamic cohorts have been established with continuous monitoring of health outcomes. Collection of environmental exposure data can complement cohort studies to investigate health effects in relation to environmental exposures. The objective of this research was to study the health effects of selected environmental exposure among the urban poor population in Nairobi, Kenya. Methods: We used the platform of the Nairobi Urban Health and Demographic Surveillance System (NUHDSS), including two nested research studies, to provide data on mortality and mor­bidity. The NUHDSS was established in two areas of Nairobi, Korogocho and Viwandani, in 2003 and provides a unique opportunity for access to longitudinal population data. In addition, we conducted real-time measurements of particulate matter (PM2.5) in the areas from February to October in 2013. We obtained meteorological measurements from the Moi Air Base and Nairobi airport weather stations for the study period. We also conducted a cross-sectional survey to estab­lish the communities’ perceptions about air pollution and its related health risks. Time series re­gression models with a distributed lag approach were used to model the relationship between weather and mortality. A semi-ecological study with group level exposure assignment to individuals was used to assess the relationship between child health (morbidity and mortality) and the extent of PM2.5 exposure. Results: There was a significant association between daily mean temperature and all-cause mor­tality with minimum mortality temperature (MMT) in the range of 18 to 20 °C. Both mortality risk and years of life lost analysis showed risk increases in relation to cold temperatures, with pronounced effect among children under-five. Overall, mortality risks were found to be high during cold periods of the year, rising with lower temperature from MMT to about 40% in the 0–4 age group, and by about v 20% among all ages. The results from air pollution assessment showed high levels of PM2.5 concentration exceeding World Health Organization (WHO) guideline limits in the two study ar­eas. The air pollution concentration showed similar seasonal and diurnal variation in the two slums. The majority of community residents reported to be exposed to air pollution at work, with 66% reporting to be exposed to different sources of air pollution. Despite the observed high level of exposure, residents had poor perception of air pollution levels and associated health risks. Children in the high-pollution areas (PM2.5≥ 25 μg⁄m3) were at significantly higher risk for morbidity (OR = 1.30, 95% CI: 1.13-1.48) and cough as the only form of morbidity (OR = 1.33, 95% CI: 1.15-1.53) compared to those in low-pollution areas. In addition, exposure to high levels of pollution was associated with high child mortality from all-causes (IRR=1.15, 95% CI: 1.03-1.28), and indicated a positive association to respiratory related mortality (IRR=1.10, 95% CI: 0.91-1.33). Conclusion: The study findings extend our knowledge on health impacts related to environmental exposure by providing novel evidence on the risks in disadvantaged urban populations in Af­rica. More specifically, the study illustrates the invisible health burden that the urban poor population are facing in relation to weather and air pollution exposures. The effect of cold on population is preventable. This is manifested by the effective adaptation to cold conditions in high-latitude Nordic countries by housing standards and clothing, as well as a well-functioning health system. Further, awareness and knowledge of consequences, and reductions in exposure to air pollution, are necessary to improve public health in the slum areas. In conclusion, adverse health impacts caused by environmental stressors are critical to assess further in disadvantaged populations, and should be followed by development of mitigation measures leading to improved health and well being in SSA.

Not available / text

Not available / text

published_or_final_version / Public Administration / Master / Master of Public Administration

published_or_final_version / Community Medicine / Master / Master of Philosophy