In certain neurodegenerative diseases such Dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB), it is hypothesised that misfolded α-synuclein (α-syn) and β-amyloid both contribute to pathology. α-Syn and β-amyloid have been suggested to synergistically promote one another’s accumulation and aggregation, but the mechanisms are unknown. β-Amyloid is generated from β-/γ-secretase-mediated processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP). This study investigated how α-syn overexpression in cells affects β-amyloid production from APP, using multiplex assays, luciferase reporter assays, and western blotting. Wildtype α-syn expression induces β-amyloid generation from APP in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells, and similar changes to APP processing occur in another neuronal cell model. Dominant-negative overexpression of α-syn mutants revealed that disrupting the N-terminal domain can increase APP amyloidogenic processing. Secretase enzymes that perform APP processing were next investigated. γ-Secretase activity, measured by a luciferase reporter, was not increased by α-syn overexpression. A higher ratio of β- to α-secretase processing was hypothesised, which led to expression and activity studies of the major β- and α-secretases, BACE1 and ADAM10 respectively. It was shown that the BACE1 protein expression is post-transcriptionally upregulated in α-syn cells, with increased APP cleavage in cells. ADAM10 protein expression is transcriptionally suppressed in wild-type α-syn cells, reducing total levels of catalytically active enzyme. However the change in ADAM10-mediated APP processing may be negligible since, critically, plasma membrane expression of ADAM10 appears to be maintained. To aid understanding of the mechanism that connects α-syn to APP processing, BACE1 expression was used in pharmacological studies of cell stress signalling. This approach revealed that in α-syn cells BACE1 lysosomal and/or proteasomal degradation may be disturbed. Additionally, BACE1 expression is induced by translational de-repression mediated by eIF2α ser-51 phosphorylation, which was increased in α-syn cells. Although preliminary, the data suggests a role for oxidative stress mediating the increased BACE1 expression in wild-type α-syn cells.

α-synuclein is a small presynaptic protein whose misfolding and aggregation are considered drivers of the neurological disorders Parkinson’s disease, multiple system atrophy, dementia with Lewy bodies and related synucleopathies. α-synuclein exists in a dynamic state that changes from an α-helical conformation when bound to liposomes to natively unfolded in solution, the majority being in the latter state. The disease process by which native healthy α-synuclein undergoes a change in conformation to form β-sheet oligomers and fibrils is still unresolved. The fibrillation process has been widely studied by several different techniques and the structure of the fibrils has been determined by NMR, scanning transmission electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. The early stages of aggregation into β-sheet rich oligomers, despite having been widely studied, has proven difficult to follow due to the heterogeneity of the species formed and the unpredictability of the process. The goal of the work reported here was to design and develop a novel, reproducible and quantitative assay to study the early stages of α-synuclein aggregation and to establish a platform for discovery of novel compounds that inhibit this process. These compounds could then be taken as a starting point for the development of new drugs for the treatment of synucleopathies. The assay developed herein has been designed, established and demonstrated to be suitable for the screening of α-synuclein aggregation inhibitors. The assay quantitatively measures aggregation using α- synuclein site-specifically labelled with green and red fluorescent dyes. Proteins labelled with the green dye are bound to microbeads. α-synuclein labelled with the red dye aggregates on the bead-linked green α-synuclein. The first part of the thesis describes the development of the tools required for the assay. α-synuclein single cysteine mutants were produced to introduce a specific attachment point to the protein. Single isomer carboxytetramethylrhodamine was synthesised in large scale for the label. Two different trifunctional tags that allow both the fluorescent labelling of the protein and the addition of a group for bead attachment in a single step were synthesised. Optimisation of the attachment of the functionalised proteins to beads of differing materials was accomplished enabling further development of the bead-based aggregation assay. With all tools established, the second part of the work comprised the development of the bead-based α-synuclein aggregation assay. Solid supports made of two different materials, TentaGel and Agarose, with two different types of bead surface attachment chemistry for α-synuclein were investigated, Ni-NTA on bead with His6-tag on the target or dibenzylcyclooctyne on bead and azide conjugation for the target. Only the combination of Ni-NTA agarose beads linking to His6-tag functionalised α-synuclein was found to be suitable for quantitative measurement of the aggregation process. Using 20 % EtOH, α-synuclein on-bead aggregation was reproducible within a 5 h time-frame with a linear dependence of aggregation rate as function of protein concentration on-bead. The third part of the thesis describes the research into novel starting points for the discovery of inhibitors of α-synuclein aggregation. In the peptides field, the most active peptides in the literature were selected and synthesised for study under the same conditions to find the most active ones. The most active peptide could be modified with non-natural amino acids to increase affinity and stability. While peptides and peptidomimetics would be applied in mechanistic studies, small molecular inhibitors of aggregation might represent lead compounds. One known inhibitor of α-synuclein aggregation was selected, NPT200-5, and an on-bead synthesis was developed so a diversity library could be generated around its four different building blocks. Finally the peptides, the NPT200-5 amide derivative and some known small molecule inhibitors of α-synuclein aggregation, such as curcumin, baicalein and EGCG amongst others, were screened on the bead-based α-synuclein aggregation assay. Strong inhibitory effects of curcumin and baicalein demonstrated the efficacy of the newly developed assay. In summary, the tools for the development of a novel micro-bead-based α-synuclein aggregation assay have been successfully produced. A novel bead-based α-synuclein early stage aggregation assay has been developed and optimised. Validation of this new technique was achieved with known small molecules inhibitors of α-synuclein aggregation.

The biological basis of the clinical heterogeneity in Parkinson's Disease (PD) is unclear. It is likely to involve complex interactions between genetic and environmental factors and between a range of pathological processes, including protein homeostasis and immune system function. Microglial activation in the brain and peripheral innate immune changes are known to occur in PD. Recently genetic, animal and cellular studies have linked several innate immune related genes and proteins (e.g. HLADR, TREM2, TLR2, TLR4, caspase-1) to PD and provided evidence that they may have a role in PD pathogenesis. Alpha-synuclein is central to PD, with evidence from neuropathology, genetics and animal/cell models indicating that it plays a significant pathogenic role. There is developing evidence directly linking innate immune activity and alpha-synuclein pathology. For example, inflammation, particularly in response to microbial infection, is associated with increased alpha-synuclein accumulation in the periphery and activation of the innate immune inflammasome related caspase-1 leads to increased cleavage and aggregation of alpha-synuclein. Overall Hypothesis- "Parkinson's disease (PD) and its clinical heterogeneity are associated with systemic changes in innate immune and associated microbial factors and in alpha-synuclein". This was investigated from the perspective of an epidemiological study, a study of peripheral blood monocyte, innate immune/microbial markers and a cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) study in PD patients. *The epidemiological study, involved the longitudinal PICNICS cohort of 290 Idiopathic PD patients, and showed that the use of medication known to influence alpha-synuclein and immune function is associated with motor heterogeneity in PD. *The peripheral immune study involved 41 early PD patients and 41 age, gender and MAPT genotype matched paired controls, with the PD patients categorised into 2 groups based on the presence of previously identified clinical and genetic risk factors for the development of an early dementia (impaired semantic fluency, pentagon copying and MAPT H1/H1 haplotype). This study demonstrated that the phenotypic profile of peripheral monocytes and the level of serum alpha-synuclein and relevant innate immune and microbial markers do differ in early PD compared to controls and that there are differential changes in those patients at higher versus lower risk for early dementia. The systemic alpha-synuclein related changes appear to be present overall in PD patients compared to controls, while the more microbial/innate immune related changes appear to be more prominent in the dementia higher risk group. *The CSF study involved samples from 35 PD patients and has demonstrated evidence of relationships between neurodegeneration-linked CSF tau species and inflammatory cytokines, and between CSF alpha-synuclein and cognitive function, suggesting that these factors may be involved in PD heterogeneity within the central nervous system as well. Overall, these studies provide evidence that variations in alpha synuclein/ tau homeostasis and innate immune and microbial factors are related to PD and its clinical heterogeneity.

Les Glycosaminoglycannes (GAGs) sont une famille de polysaccharides principalement localisés au niveau de la matrice extracellulaire et de la membrane plasmique. Ils peuvent interagir avec des facteurs de croissance et des cytokines pour réguler leurs activités, participer à des transports protéiques à travers la membrane cellulaire, moduler les activités de certaines enzymes telles que les cathepsines (enzymes lysosomales). Toutes ces activités démontrent que les GAGs jouent des rôles primordiaux dans la régulation de la croissance, la différenciation, l'adhésion, l'inflammation et la mort cellulaire.L'implication de ces polysaccharides dans la régulation de l'apoptose via la voie mitochondriale n'a toujours pas été déterminée. Ici, nous démontrons dans un modèle cellulaire de fibroblastes de peau en culture primaire, soumis à un stress oxydatif par de l'H2O2, qu'un mimétique des GAGs, l'OTR4120, est capable de protéger la membrane du lysosome, de réduire le taux de ROS intracellulaires et d'inhiber la chute du potentiel de membrane mitochondrial et ainsi d'empêcher la libération du cytochrome c et l'activation des activités caspases-9 et -3 sans affecter la voie extrinsèque de l'apoptose. Les héparanes sulfates et les chondroïtines sulfates au contraire de l'héparine, ont montré un effet protecteur de l'apoptose en inhibant les protéines clefs de ce processus de mort cellulaire. Ainsi, les GAGs naturels et l'OTR4120 sont capables s'opposer à l'apoptose, en inhibant l'activité de la cathepsine D libérée dans le cytosol, empêchant ainsi l'activation de la voie intrinsèque de l'apoptose via la mitochondrie. Ces résultats ouvrent de nouveaux horizons notamment dans certaines maladies où le stress oxydatif est impliqué comme c'est le cas de certaines maladies neurodégénératives comme la maladie de Parkinson.La cause de la maladie de Parkinson (MP) qui affecte les neurones dopaminergiques demeure encore mystérieuse, bien que différentes preuves soutiennent les hypothèses impliquant des dysfonctionnements mitochondriaux et une accumulation d'α-synucléine comme étant les événements majeurs dans cette physiopathologie. Récemment, la cathepsine D a été impliquée dans des processus de mort cellulaire et montrée comme étant surexprimée dans des modèles de la MP. De plus, apparait être l'une des principales enzymes responsables de la dégradation de l'α-synucléine. Puisque les glycosaminoglycannes (GAGs) sont capables de réguler l'activité de la cathepsine D dans des cellules en culture dans une condition de stress, nous avons cherché à démontrer si GAGs pouvaient être localisés à un niveau intracellulaire, où ils pourraient interagir avec la cathepsine D et s'ils étaient capables de réguler l'accumulation/dégradation de l'α-synucléine. Ainsi nous avons mis en place un modèle cellulaire de la MP induit par le MPP+. Nous avons observé que l'expression génétique des enzymes de la biosynthèse des GAGs (HS2ST, HS6ST et CHST8) a été modifiée dans les cellules stressées par la neurotoxine et que leurs taux mesurés par leurs sulfates étaient augmentés plus précisément au niveau des HS. Au contraire, l'absence de GAGs sulfatés induit par le chlorate de sodium, un inhibiteur de la PAPs (donneur de sulfates), a permis d'augmenter l'activité de l'activité cathepsine D et également d'inhiber l'accumulation ou d'induire la dégradation de l'α-synucléine. Pour la première fois, il a été montré que les GAGs sont capables d'agir sur l'activité cathepsine D à l'intérieur de la cellule et de réguler l'accumulation/dégradation de l'α-synucléine. / Pas de résumé anglais

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a prevalent neurodegenerative disorder for which the greatest risk factor is age. Four to five percent of 85-year-olds suffer from this debilitating disease, which is characterized by the selective loss of dopaminergic neurons within the substantia nigra and the presence of protein aggregates known as Lewy bodies. While the etiology of this disease is still unknown, recent research implicates oxidative stress, activated microglia, and reactive dopamine (DA) metabolites to play a role in the initiation or progression of the disease. Activated microglia cause injury to dopaminergic neurons via a host of mechanisms, including reactive oxygen species production, release of cytokines, and phagocytic activity. Microglial activation has been detected in the brains of PD patients, but the source of this activation has not been elucidated. Previous research has shown electrophiles and endogenous neurotoxins to play a role in this microglial activation. The interaction between the neurotoxic metabolite of DA, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetaldehyde (DOPAL), and microglia has not been explored. DOPAL is a highly reactive, bifunctional electrophile produced by oxidative deamination of DA by monoamine oxidase (MAO). DOPAL is oxidized in the major metabolism pathway to 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) by aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH). DOPAL has previously been shown to be 100-fold more toxic than DA in vitro and in vivo. Potent inhibition of the rate-limiting enzyme in DA biosynthesis, tyrosine hydroxylase, by DOPAL has been well-established. DOPAL-mediated aggregation of Α-synuclein, the primary component of PD-hallmark Lewy bodies, has been suggested but was further explored in this work. Results presented in this body of work include further determination of the aggregation of Α-synuclein by DOPAL, including evidence of covalent modification. The interaction of DOPAL with BV-2 microglia, an immortalized cell line, was addressed in depth through exploration of DOPAL catabolism, toxicity, and generation of an activational response. Metabolism of DOPAL to DOPAC was altered in activated microglia, with the production of DOPAC reduced by ~40%. Metabolism of DOPAL to DOPAC was also inhibited by both 4-hydroxynonenal and malondialdehyde, gold standards of lipid peroxidation. Both of these compounds were found to be significantly toxic to BV-2 cells at concentrations well below those considered toxic to dopaminergic cells. Alternatively, DOPAL and DA were found to be non-toxic to this cell line, while DOPAL was shown to be significantly toxic to dopaminergic cells at concentrations as low as 10 ΜM. Significant activation of BV-2 microglia by DOPAL was observed at 10 ΜM and above by release of TNF-Α. Morphological changes, release of IL-6, and changes in expression of COX-2 also indicated activation by DOPAL but not DA or DOPAC. BV-2-conditioned media, generated by incubation with DA, DOPAL, or DOPAC, was added to MN9D cells, and toxicity was measured by the MTT assay. BV-2 conditioned media generated by DOPAL incubation produced the greatest toxicity for MN9D cells. These results implicate DOPAL in dopaminergic cell death through microglial activation.

No description available.

Alpha-synuclein (AS) is a natively unfolded protein whose structure is extremely sensitive to its environment. The hallmark of Parkinson’s disease (PD) is aggregation and deposition of AS in inclusion bodies. Formation of misfolded AS monomers which are partially folded is the first and critical stage in fibrillation of AS and is a good target for designing therapeutic strategies. Characterization the biochemical properties of partially folded intermediates induced by fibrillization and anti- fibrillization agents will help to design drugs as new inhibitors of AS misfolding and aggregation. Nanopore analysis is an emerging technique for studying the molecular mechanism of protein misfolding. This technique was used to characterize the conformational change of AS in the presence of two groups of chemicals; anti-parkinsonian small molecules (dopamine and nicotine) and Parkinson’s developing toxin (Cu(II) and methamphetamine). Other biophysical techniques such as NMR spectroscopy and isothermal titration calorimentry (ITC) were able to confirm the nanopore analysis results and also to study other biophysical properties of the partially folded intermediates such as the binding constant of the interaction and the secondary structure content. The results from nanopore analysis showed that both groups of ligands shifted the blockade current peak of AS (centered at -86 pA) to lower blockade currents but in a different manner. Anti-parkinsonian drugs shifted the blockade current of AS to intermediate peaks between -40 to -80 pA but Parkinson developing toxins shifted the peak to a lower blockade current centered at -25 pA which suggests a more compact conformation. Thus nanopore analysis distinguished the different conformation induced by different ligands. Furthermore nanopore analysis with AS fragments showed that these ligands bind to different regions of AS. NMR spectroscopy of AS in the presence of dopamine and nicotine isomers was in agreement with the nanopore analysis and showed conformational changes of AS in a concentration dependent manner. CD spectroscopy results showed that the secondary structure of AS alone and in the presence of ligands was mostly random coil and suggests a loop formation model for the interaction of ligands with AS. The results of this thesis showed the application of nanopore analysis as a real-time and label-free technique to screen a library of ligands for designing misfolding inhibitors for PD treatment. The result of a synergic experiment with nicotine and caffeine showed that combination of these anti-parkinsonian small molecules would be a promising new drug for treatment of PD.

The molecular mechanisms underlying the association between mutations in GBA1 and risk of developing the ‘synucleinopathy’ disorders Parkinson’s disease (PD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) remain elusive. To better understand the precise molecular cascade that connects GBA1 mutations with α-synuclein dysregulation, a modified lipid extraction and HPTLC protocol was optimized to detect changes in levels of neutral sphingolipids (SLs) from neural cells and tissue expressing wild-type (WT) GBA1, mutant GBA1, or both. We demonstrate that mutant GBA1 does not confer a dominant-negative effect on WT GBA1-mediated activity; however, bona fide loss-of-enzymatic function mutation events led to the accumulation of lipid substrates in neural cells and tissue, and enhance α- synuclein/ubiquitin reactivity in brain tissue of mutant gba1 mice. Our HPLC-MS/MS data are consistent with other studies demonstrating that heterozygous GBA1 mutations do not lead to lipid accumulation, but may alter α-synuclein degradation through a yet-to-be defined novel gain-of-toxic function event.

Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease resulting primarily from loss of dopaminergic innervation in the striatum subsequent to cell loss in the substantia nigra pars compacta. The abnormal accumulation of the normal pre-synaptic protein α-synuclein (αsyn) forms intraneuronal inclusions known as Lewy neurites and Lewy bodies. The origins of central Lewy pathology have been suggested to lie in the enteric nervous system, ascending through the vagus nerve to the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. To ascertain gastrointestinal regions most likely to be the source of central Lewy pathology, αsyn expression was evaluated in the neural elements of gastrointestinal regions receiving the densest vagal innervation. The vermiform appendix was found to have the densest αsyn-immunoreactive innervation in all layers of the gut wall. In addition, macrophages in the appendiceal mucosa were laden with αsyn within lysosomes, consistent with attempts to prevent the spread of disease or to correct synaptic dysfunction.

Parkinson’s disease, dementia with Lewy bodies and multiple system atrophy are disorders featuring accumulation of Lewy bodies in brain. The main component of these large insoluble intracellular inclusions is the presynaptic protein alpha-synuclein (α-synuclein). It is generally believed that α-synuclein monomers adopt an abnormal conformation that favors the formation of soluble oligomers or protofibrils and, eventually, insoluble fibrils depositing as Lewy bodies. Notably, the intermediately sized oligomers/protofibrils seem to have particular neurotoxic effects. Several factors may influence the formation of α-synuclein oligomers/protofibrils, e.g. the reactive aldehydes 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE) and 4-oxo-2-nonenal (ONE) formed during oxidative stress. The overall aims of this thesis were to investigate biophysical and biochemical properties of in vitro generated α-synuclein oligomers, characterize their functional effects on cell and animal disease models as well as to explore whether their formation could be prevented in a cell culture model for oligomerization.  Here, it was found that α-synuclein rapidly formed oligomers after incubation with both ONE and HNE. The resulting oligomers were stable and did not continue to form insoluble fibrils. By comparing HNE- and ONE induced α-synuclein oligomers biochemically they were both found to exhibit extensive β-beta sheet structure and had a molecular size of ~2000 kDa. However, they differed in morphology; the ONE induced α-synuclein oligomers described round amorphous species whereas the HNE induced α-synuclein oligomers appeared as elongated protofibril-like structures. Both these oligomers were cell internalized to varying degrees and induced toxicity in neuroblastoma cells. In addition, the ONE induced α-synuclein oligomers seemed to initiate aggregation of monomeric α-synuclein in vitro, but failed to do so in vivo. Finally, treatment of α-synuclein overexpressing cells with monoclonal antibodies specific for α-synuclein significantly reduced aggregation and lowered levels of the protein, suggesting increased turnover in these cells.  To conclude, this thesis has characterized different oligomeric α-synuclein species, which may have properties similar to soluble species central to the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease and other disorders with α-synuclein pathology. For therapeutic strategies it is important to selectively target such harmful protein species and avoid interaction with other forms of α-synuclein, which may have vital physiological cellular functions.