No description available.

Introduction of a composition gradient at a join between two materials of different elastic properties should reduce the stress concentrating effect of the interfacial discontinuity. A crack oriented perpendicular to this elasticity gradient will experience mode-mixity, and possible subsequent crack deflection. Explicit analytical solutions for the stress state at the tip of an angled crack in a graded material of a given finite geometry do not exist, and ongoing crack path development in such a gradient has not been characterised. An infiltration processing technique is developed which allows two materials to be joined through a region of graded composition, of tailored width and composition profile. Composition discontinuities at layer interfaces in a stepped gradient can be tolerated due to the resulting interpenetrating network structured (INS) microstructure. Firing stresses were found to be a limitation of the processing technique, overcome by limiting the steepness of the elastic gradient. Alumina and epoxy resin graded composites were produced and tested under monotonic loading, resulting in stable crack path evolution. Stress-field asymmetry at the tip of a crack oriented perpendicular to an elastic gradient was demonstrated, followed by subsequent crack deflection. Stress intensity factor and deflection angle increase with increasing gradient steepness. Rising R-curve behaviour was demonstrated for all compositions of the INS composite, with initiation and plateau toughness decreasing with increasing epoxy content. Evidence of crack bridging by intact ligaments of the epoxy phase in the crack wake explains this behaviour. Crack deflection towards the epoxy region was anticipated and demonstrated for all gradient configurations. An increase in relative crack depth was seen to increase mode-mixity at the crack-tip and subsequent crack deflection, up to a relative depth of ~0.5. No conclusive evidence was found for the influence of crack bridging on crack deflection. Toughness was shown to increase with the inclusion of a microstructural gradient. Measured toughness within graded samples was shown to be controlled by both the local composition and the volume of bridging ligaments in the crack wake. The optimum gradient should ??? extend over the widest region practical, ??? encompass the widest composition range possible, and ??? demonstrate extrinsic crack extension toughening.

H υποβάθμιση της δομικής ακεραιότητας των γηρασμένων κατασκευών αποτελεί ένα από τα σημαντικότερα σύγχρονα τεχνολογικά προβλήματα, και ειδικότερα το πρόβλημα του ‘γηράσκοντος’ Αεροσκάφους αποτελεί ένα από τα σημαντικότερα προβλήματα της Αεροπορικής Βιομηχανίας. Τεχνολογικά το πρόβλημα της γήρανσης της δομής του αεροσκάφους είναι ένα πρόβλημα κόπωσης. Οι περιοχές των συνδέσεων στην άτρακτο ενός αεροσκάφους αποτελούν υψηλά καταπονούμενες περιοχές της δομής, με αποτέλεσμα τη δημιουργία πολλών μικρών ρωγμών στα ελάσματα του περιβλήματος της ατράκτου γύρω από τις οπές (ευρείας έκτασης βλάβη κόπωσης – wide spread fatigue damage). Με το χρόνο λειτουργίας οι ρωγμές αυτές εξελίσσονται και αλληλεπιδρούν. Η κατάσταση αυτή, που ονομάζεται κατάσταση πολλαπλής βλάβης (Multi-Side-Damage) υποβαθμίζει σημαντικά τη φέρουσα ικανότητα του κατασκευαστικού μέρους και μπορεί να οδηγήσει σε απώλεια της δομικής του ακεραιότητας. Η ύπαρξη διάβρωσης επιτείνει σημαντικά το πρόβλημα της δομικής ακεραιότητας του γηράσκοντος αεροσκάφους. Στις υψηλά καταπονούμενες περιοχές της δομής η ύπαρξη διάβρωσης με την ταυτόχρονη παρουσία ρωγμών κόπωσης μπορεί να οδηγήσει σε απώλεια της δομικής ακεραιότητας με καταστροφικές συνέπειες. Πρόσφατες έρευνες [3,4] έδειξαν, ότι η διάβρωση τυπικών αεροπορικών κραμάτων των σειρών 2xxx (π.χ. 2024) 6xxx (π.χ. 6013) και 7xxx (π.χ.7075) σε διαβρωτικό περιβάλλον αποφλοίωσης (EXCO) αλλά και σε φυσική διάβρωση, οδηγεί σε υποβάθμιση του ορίου διαρροής και του ορίου θραύσης των υλικών, κυρίως όμως υποβαθμίζει δραματικά την παραμόρφωση θραύσης και τη ικανότητα των υλικών να αποταμιεύουν μηχανική ενέργεια πριν την θραύση, δηλαδή την αναμενόμενη ανοχή τους στη βλάβη κόπωσης. Η υποβάθμιση αυτή των ιδιοτήτων αποδόθηκε σε ψαθυροποίηση των κραμάτων αλουμινίου που προκαλείται από τη διάβρωση λόγω προσρόφησης και παγίδευσης υδρογόνου σε συγκεκριμένες παγίδες στην μικροδομή του υλικού που εξαρτώνται από το κραματικό σύστημα [56,59,62,68]. Στην παρούσα διατριβή πραγματοποιήθηκε πειραματική και θεωρητική διερεύνηση της επίδρασης της διάβρωσης στα χαρακτηριστικά κόπωσης και θραύσης του κράματος αλουμινίου 2024. / Loss of structural integrity is one of the most significant threats for ageing structures. The occurrence of Multiple Site Damage (MSD), that implies the simultaneous existence of several interacting fatigue cracks at various locations of a structural element can degrade the structural strength and service life of a structure. The occurrence of MSD in older airplanes was highlighted by the “Aloha accident” [49] at 1988, when a Boeing 737 of Aloha Airlines with a service life of nearly 90000 flights suffered an in-flight failure of a portion of the fuselage. The occurrence of corrosion presents an additional significant cause of structural degradation. As the service time for an aircraft structure increases, there is an increasing probability that corrosion will interact with other forms of damage, such as single fatigue cracks or MSD in the form of widespread cracking at regions of high stress gradients; it can result to loss of structural integrity and may lead to fatal consequences. Thus, the effect of corrosion on the damage tolerance ability of advanced aluminum alloys calls for a very diligent consideration to problems associated with the combined effect of corrosion and MSD mechanisms. Extensive experimental data referring to accelerated laboratory corrosion tests, have shown a significant reduction of material mechanical properties, leading to a decrease of the load bearing capacity of the corroded structural member. It has been recognized that, this decrease is associated with hydrogen embrittlement, as hydrogen produced during the corrosion process may diffuse into the material and be trapped at different trapping sites depending on the alloy system [56,62,68]. In the present thesis, experimental and numerical investigations have been carried out in the Laboratory of Technology and Strength of Materials of the University of Patras to study the influence of corrosion on the damage tolerance and fracture toughness characteristics of the high strength aluminum alloy 2024.

No description available.

Introduction of a composition gradient at a join between two materials of different elastic properties should reduce the stress concentrating effect of the interfacial discontinuity. A crack oriented perpendicular to this elasticity gradient will experience mode-mixity, and possible subsequent crack deflection. Explicit analytical solutions for the stress state at the tip of an angled crack in a graded material of a given finite geometry do not exist, and ongoing crack path development in such a gradient has not been characterised. An infiltration processing technique is developed which allows two materials to be joined through a region of graded composition, of tailored width and composition profile. Composition discontinuities at layer interfaces in a stepped gradient can be tolerated due to the resulting interpenetrating network structured (INS) microstructure. Firing stresses were found to be a limitation of the processing technique, overcome by limiting the steepness of the elastic gradient. Alumina and epoxy resin graded composites were produced and tested under monotonic loading, resulting in stable crack path evolution. Stress-field asymmetry at the tip of a crack oriented perpendicular to an elastic gradient was demonstrated, followed by subsequent crack deflection. Stress intensity factor and deflection angle increase with increasing gradient steepness. Rising R-curve behaviour was demonstrated for all compositions of the INS composite, with initiation and plateau toughness decreasing with increasing epoxy content. Evidence of crack bridging by intact ligaments of the epoxy phase in the crack wake explains this behaviour. Crack deflection towards the epoxy region was anticipated and demonstrated for all gradient configurations. An increase in relative crack depth was seen to increase mode-mixity at the crack-tip and subsequent crack deflection, up to a relative depth of ~0.5. No conclusive evidence was found for the influence of crack bridging on crack deflection. Toughness was shown to increase with the inclusion of a microstructural gradient. Measured toughness within graded samples was shown to be controlled by both the local composition and the volume of bridging ligaments in the crack wake. The optimum gradient should ??? extend over the widest region practical, ??? encompass the widest composition range possible, and ??? demonstrate extrinsic crack extension toughening.

Impact damage resistance is an essential requirement of lightweight structural components for high-performance applications. The aim of this thesis is to study the impact damage and perforation behaviour of lightweight materials including thin aluminium alloy plates and carbon fibre reinforced epoxy composites. The focus of this investigation is on the stress state and strain rate dependence of failure, and the effect of microstructural modifications on indentation and impact response. The thesis is divided into three parts. In the first part (Chapter 2) the impact response of thin monolithic ductile aluminium alloy plates is investigated. Impact perforation experiments are performed using different projectile nose shapes to span a wide range of stress states at the onset of ductile fracture. Impact perforation behaviour, ballistic limit velocity, energy absorption capability and sensitivity to projectile tip geometry are evaluated. Modes of deformation and failure during impact are assessed experimentally. It is shown that modelling the stress state and strain rate dependence of plasticity and failure is crucial to accurately predict ductile fracture initiation in thin metal plates. In the second part (Chapters 3 and 4), the stress state and strain rate dependent yield and failure behaviour of epoxy resin is investigated. An iterative numerical-experimental approach is shown to be essential to develop a material model capable of predicting the failure behaviour of epoxy for a wide range of stress triaxialities across different regimes of failure. The influence of microstructural modifications in epoxy, through two different toughening strategies, on its failure behaviour is investigated. The effect of increasing the applied strain rate on the stress state dependent response of epoxy is investigated to provide an insight into the impact damage resistance of carbon fibre reinforced epoxy composites. In the third part (Chapter 5), experimental studies are conducted on the quasi-static indentation and impact perforation response of plain weave carbon fibre reinforced epoxy composites to investigate the effect of toughening the epoxy matrix to improve resistance to indentation and impact. The nose shape sensitivity of failure initiation in carbon/epoxy composite targets is assessed by considering indenters with different tip geometries. Conclusions and suggestions for future work are presented in Chapter 6.

Organically modified sol-gel coatings have been investigated as potential replacements for chromate conversion coating of AA1050 and AA2024 aluminium alloys. The coatings were prepared by a combination of a completely hydrolysable precursor of tetra-n-propoxyzirconium (TPOZ), with a partially hydrolysable precursor of glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane (GPTMS). GPTMS contains organic functional groups, which are retained in the sol-gel coatings after the hydrolysis-condensation process. Different process parameters, e.g. GPTMS/TPOZ ratios, withdrawal speeds, solvent water concentrations, and curing temperatures were studied. Coatings produced using a low GPTMS/TPOZ ratio and a high withdrawal speed generated significant cracks due to the shrinkage of the coatings. It was found that increase of organic moieties reduced the shrinkage of the coatings and the tendency for crack formation. By controlling process parameters and ratios of organic and inorganic moieties, crack-free sol-gel coatings from 0.1 μm to 9 μm thick can be achieved. The sol-gel coatings formed are amorphous and contain organic epoxy-ether retained silicon oxide, silicon hydroxide, zirconium oxide, zirconium hydroxide, and zirconium acetate. The Si/Zr ratios of resultant sol-gel coatings are proportional to the initial GPTMS/TPOZ ratio. Cerium oxide nanoparticles were successfully incorporated into sol-gel coatings with a single layer and double layer sol-gel process. Through the dip coating process, crack-free sol-gel coatings, of varied thickness, were developed on different aluminium substrate, including electropolished superpure aluminium, magnetron sputtered aluminium with varied copper contents from 0 to 30 wt.%, and commercial AA1050 and 2024 aluminium alloys. Sol-gel coatings formed on commercial AA1050 and 2024 aluminium alloys revealed a significant passivation in 3.5 wt.% sodium chloride solution during anodic polarisation when the sol-gel coating is more than 1 µm thick and proper surface pretreatments of the alloys were used. Corrosion tests by immersion in 3.5 wt% sodium chloride solution and by salt spray in 5 wt.% sodium chloride solution revealed that sol-gel coatings successfully protected AA2024 aluminium alloy against the aggressive environment and have the potential to replace chromate containing coating systems.

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