Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Hong Kong, 2010. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 149-179). Also available in print.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Case Western Reserve University, 2005. / [School of Medicine] Department of Genetics. Includes bibliographical references. Available online via OhioLINK's ETD Center.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 2004. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 196-228).

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Oklahoma. / Bibliography: leaves 145-219.

Thesis (M. Phil.)--University of Hong Kong, 2005. / Title proper from title frame. Also available in printed format.

The entire dissertation/thesis text is included in the research.pdf file; the official abstract appears in the short.pdf file (which also appears in the research.pdf); a non-technical general description, or public abstract, appears in the public.pdf file. Title from PDF of title page (University of Missouri--Columbia, viewed on April 29, 2010). Vita. Thesis advisor: Grace Y. Sun. "May 2008" Includes bibliographical references.

Soluble amyloid-beta (Aβ) aggregates, including Aβ protofibrils, play a central role in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and constitute a potential diagnostic biomarker and a therapeutic target. Aβ protofibrils promote synapse dysfunction and neurodegeneration, but the mechanisms behind these effects remain unclear. The aim of this thesis was to increase the knowledge of Aβ protofibrils in AD pathology. When measuring low abundant antigens, such as soluble Aβ aggregates, in plasma and CSF by immunoassays, there is a possibility of interference by heterophilic antibodies (HA). In paper I, we show that HA generate false positive signals, by cross-binding the assay antibodies, when plasma and CSF from AD patients and healthy controls were analyzed for soluble Aβ aggregates, using sandwich ELISAs. Natural anti-Aβ antibodies exist in AD patients and healthy individuals. Circulating Aβ and anti-Aβ antibodies may form immune complexes, masking epitopes on the anti-Aβ antibody, which makes the anti-Aβ antibody concentration difficult to measure. In paper II, the ELISpot technique enabled us to successfully measure B cell production of anti-Aβ antibodies. Our results show that anti-Aβ protofibril antibody production is present in both AD patients and healthy individuals, but is significantly higher in AD patients, indicating that the immune system attempt to eliminate the toxic Aβ species. Insufficient lysosomal degradation is proposed to cause sporadic AD. In paper III, we used a co-culture system of astrocytes, neurons and oligodendrocytes, to clarify the role of astrocytes in Aβ protofibril clearance. Astrocytes are the most prominent glial cell type in the brain, but their role in AD remains elusive. We found that astrocytes effectively engulf, but inefficiently degrade Aβprotofibrils. This result in a high intracellular load of toxic, partly N-terminally truncated Aβ and lysosomal dysfunction. Moreover, we found that secretion of microvesicles, containing N-terminally truncated Aβ, induce neuronal apoptosis. In paper IV, we show that treatment with the protofibril selective antibody mAb158 lead to enhanced Aβ clearance and thereby prevent Aβ neurotoxicity. Taken together, this thesis contributes with important knowledge on the role of Aβ protofibrils in AD pathogenesis and technical aspects that should be considered when measuring Aβ in human tissues.

La maladie d’Alzheimer (MA) constitue la forme la plus commune de démence associée à une perte de mémoire et caractérisée par l’accumulation de plaques extracellulaires contenant des peptides bêta-amyloïdes (Aβ). Des études ont révélé une perte plus importante de synapses que ne peut l’expliquer la mort neuronale, suggérant qu’un déficit synaptique serait présent dès les stades initiaux de la maladie. Bien que le peptide Aβ fût identifié comme un composé des plaques amyloïdes extracellulaires dans les années 1980, des études plus récentes ont mis en évidence la présence intracellulaire de ce peptide. L’accumulation d’Aβ intracellulaire serait un événement antérieur à la formation des plaques séniles dans la pathogenèse de la MA et corrèlerait mieux avec les perturbations de mémoire et d’apprentissage caractéristiques de cette maladie. De plus, des données mettent en évidence la responsabilité des formes oligomériques solubles d’Aβ (Aβo) dans les évènements précoces de la MA. Ce projet vise à mieux comprendre et caractériser l’impact extracellulaire et intracellulaire des peptides Aβo et le lien fonctionnel de leurs effets sur les mécanismes moléculaires impliqués dans les processus mnésiques affectés dans la maladie d’Alzheimer. Dans ce contexte, il nous a paru essentiel d’étudier l’impact extracellulaire et intracellulaire des oligomères d’Aβ sur la transmission synaptique. Ces travaux ont été effectués sur culture primaire de neurones corticaux et sur tranche de cortex de souris par des méthodes d’électrophysiologie via la technique de patch-clamp.Nous avons analysé la fréquence et l’amplitude des courants post-synaptiques excitateurs spontanés (sEPSC) des principaux récepteurs impliqués dans la transmission glutamatergique et dans les mécanismes moléculaires à la base de la mémoire et de l’apprentissage : les récepteurs AMPA et NMDA. Nos données montrent que les peptides Aβo dans le milieu extracellulaire (eAβo) ou dans le milieu intracellulaire (iAβo), affectent spécifiquement les courants associés à l’activation des récepteurs NMDA au niveau postsynaptique sans altérer les courants AMPA. L’application dans le milieu extracellulaire d’Aβo réduit l’amplitude des courants NMDA. Ce phénomène n’est pas lié à la pénétration du peptide Aβo dans les neurones mais à l’activation par l’Aβo de la voie amyloïdogénique induisant une accumulation intrasynaptique d’Aβo responsable de la réduction des courants NMDA.L’ensemble de ces données suggère que l’Aβo perturbe le processing d’APP menant à une production intracellulaire d’Aβo responsable de la réduction de la transmission glutamatergique NMDA-dépendante. Une étape essentielle afin d’améliorer la compréhension des mécanismes moléculaires qui sont à la base des altérations synaptiques glutamatergiques dans la MA est d’approfondir le lien fonctionnel entre les effets extracellulaire et intracellulaire des peptides Aβo. / Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia associated with memory loss and characterized by an accumulation of extracellular plaques composed of amyloid-beta peptides (Aβ). Studies have revealed a greater loss of synapses than the neuronal death can explain, suggesting that a synaptic deficit would be present from the early stages of the disease. Although the Aβ peptide has been identified as a component of the extracellular amyloid plaques in the 1980s, recent studies have highlighted the intracellular presence of this peptide. The intracellular accumulation of Aβ precedes the appearance of amyloid plaques in the pathogenesis of AD and seems to be correlated with the memory and learning troubles, characteristic of this disease. Moreover, some data highlight the responsibility of the soluble oligomeric Aβ form (Aβo) in the early events of AD. This project aims to better understand and characterize the extracellular and intracellular impact of Aβo peptides and the functional link of their effects on the molecular mechanisms involved in memory processes affected in AD. In this context, it was essential to study the extracellular and intracellular impact of Aβ oligomers on synaptic transmission. This work was carried out on cultures of primary cortical neurons and mouse cortex slices using electrophysiological methods via the patch-clamp technique.We have recorded the spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (sEPSC) frequency and amplitude from the main receptors implicated in the glutamatergic transmission and in the molecular mechanisms underlying memory and learning processes: AMPA and NMDA receptors. Our data show that external or internal application of Aβo peptides affect specifically the currents associated with NMDA receptors at a postsynaptic level without altering the AMPA currents. The external application of Aβo reduces the NMDA current amplitude. This phenomenon is not due to the penetration of the Aβo peptide into the neurons but rather to the activation of the amyloïdogenic pathway by Aβo inducing an intracellular accumulation of Aβo responsible of the NMDA current reduction.All these data suggest that Aβo perturb the processing of APP leading to an intracellular Aβo production responsible of the glutamatergic NMDA-dependent transmission reduction. An essential step in order to improve our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the altered glutamatergic synaptic alterations found in AD is to deepen the functional link between the extracellular and intracellular effects of the Aβo peptides.

Amyloid $\beta$ (1-42) (A$\beta$42) is a seminal neuropathic agent in Alzheimer’s disease (AD), a multifaceted neurodegenerative disorder for which no preventative measures or disease modifying therapies currently exist. Aggregation of this peptide plays a key role in the synaptic dysfunction and neuronal death associated with the disease. Perturbing the aggregation process, therefore, represents a key strategy for the development of new AD therapeutics. A variety of issues with current screening methods, including lack of reproducibility, high reagent consumption and spectral interference from the test molecules, can limit efforts to identify new small molecule inhibitors. Furthermore, the lack of robust, time- and cost-efficient methods for screening compounds in cellular or in vivo models limits the throughput with which seemingly active small molecules can be validated and prioritised. Herein, this thesis describes efforts to overcome such limitations through the development of a unified in vitro to in vivo assay system, in which hits identified in the ‘nanoFLIM’ microfluidic-based assay can quickly be tested in cellular and whole organism disease models. The assay platform designed relies on the use of an amyloid aggregation fluorescence lifetime sensor. A$\beta$42 aggregation is monitored by changes in the fluorescence lifetime of an attached fluorophore, which is significantly quenched upon amyloid formation. To take advantage of the benefits associated with miniaturisation, an in vitro microfluidic platform was employed. A microfluidic chip capable of trapping 110 precisely ordered droplets was designed, allowing for increased sample size and greatly lowering reagent consumption relative to conventional assay formats. Optimisation of the lifetime sensor technique permitted real-time compound screening in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells, as well as in disease model Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans). To demonstrate the potential of this assay, a selection of novel chemical libraries developed in the Spring research group was screened, resulting in the identification of a key library of interest. The inhibitory activity of the lead compound from this collection was validated using a variety of biophysical tests, and was also shown to suppress amyloid aggregation in the live cell fluorescence lifetime sensor assay, as well as in whole organism disease model C. elegans. Whilst assay development was underway, additional screening of structurally diverse chemical libraries was performed using a conventional Thioflavin T spectroscopic assay. Such work identified another molecular scaffold capable of exerting a strong inhibitory effect against A$\beta$42 aggregation. A selection of analogues was synthesised to improve the in vivo profile of this library, giving rise to a second lead inhibitory compound. The activity of this compound was subsequently validated in biophysical and cellular tests, and was also tested in disease model Drosophila melanogaster. The aggregation of A$\beta$42 lies at the root of Alzheimer’s disease. In light of the relatively few drug candidates in clinical trials for this disorder, the development of improved translational screening approaches and continued screening of novel chemical libraries is necessary to identify new potential therapeutics. In this study, an in vitro to in vivo fluorescence lifetime imaging assay has been established. Using this assay system and conventional screening approaches, two A$\beta$42 aggregation inhibitors have been identified and validated. These represent promising candidates for the development of new AD therapeutic agents, or for use as molecular probes to further dissect the mechanisms underlying this devastating disease.

La maladie d'Alzheimer est une pathologie neurodégénérative caractérisée par une perte progressive des fonctions cognitives. Cette perte des fonctions cognitives est directement liée à une atteinte neuronale et plus particulièrement synaptique. Deux caractéristiques histopathologiques en lien avec des dérégulations protéiques sont retrouvées chez les patients atteints de la MA : les plaques séniles extracellulaires composées de peptides β-amyloïdes (Aβ) fibrillaires et la dégénérescence neurofibrillaire constituée d'agrégats intracellulaires de protéines tau hyper et anormalement phosphorylées. Les formes agrégées de ces protéines ont longtemps été considérées comme neurotoxiques, cependant, il est maintenant avéré que les formes solubles de ces protéines dérégulées étaient à l'origine de la pathologie. Les synapses excitatrices situées au niveau des épines dendritiques sont les cibles du peptide Aβ sous forme soluble et oligomèrique (Aβo). Ce dernier en altère la fonction et induit leurs pertes. Récemment, il a été montré que cette action synaptotoxique de l'Aβo est dépendante de la protéine tau. De plus, dans un autre modèle de tauopathie, la démence fronto-temporale avec syndrome parkinsonien liée au chromosome 17 (FTDP-17), la synaptotoxicité de tau s'est révélée dépendante de son état de phosphorylation. Ainsi, il émerge le concept de tau synaptique dans un contexte pathologique. Cependant, des études plus récentes ont montré que, en condition physiologique, une petite portion de tau se retrouve au niveau de la synapse. Au regard de ces nouvelles données, il est possible que tau, en plus d'être une protéine axonale, nucléaire et membranaire, soit aussi synaptique. Dans ce contexte, les travaux présentés dans cette thèse visent à étudier l'implication de la protéine tau dans la fonction synaptique et les perturbations induites par la présence d'Aβo. Ces travaux ont été effectués sur un modèle cellulaire de cultures primaires de neurones corticaux et sur tranche d'hippocampe de souris par des méthodes biochimiques et d'analyse dynamique en microscopie confocale sur cellules vivantes. Afin d'étudier l'impact d'une activation synaptique sur un système de culture neuronal, l'utilisation combinée de la bicuculline, antagoniste des récepteurs gabaergique GABAa et de 4-amino pyridine, bloqueur de canaux potassique, permet d'établir une potentialisation à long terme sur les synapses. Grâce à un protocole d'extraction permettant d'isoler le compartiment post-synaptique (fraction contenant la densité post synaptique dont le marqueur protéique PSD-95), nous avons montré que l'activation synaptique enrichit la fraction PSD en protéine tau suggérant son implication dans les phénomènes de plasticité synaptique. L'étude du cytosquelette d'actine prépondérant au niveau synaptique a révélé que l'actine filamenteuse est un partenaire de tau. Dans un contexte pathologique, l'incubation d'Aβo induit le recrutement de tau à la synapse et perturbe l'organisation du cytosquelette d'actine. Ce changement structurel du cytosquelette d'actine pourrait être à l'origine des perturbations de la plasticité et du maintien synaptique induit par Aβo. En conclusion, l'ensemble des résultats de cette thèse suggère que tau exerce une fonction physiologique au sein de la synapse impliquant une interaction avec le cytosquelette d'actine et qu'en conditions pathologiques (induites par Aβo), on observe une altération fonctionnelle du rôle de tau à la synapse qui pourrait participer aux perturbations cognitives caractéristiques de la MA. / Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a progressive loss of cognitive functions. This loss of cognitive functions is directly related to neuronal impairment, and more specifically, synaptic dysfunction. Two histopathological features found in AD patients' brains are related to protein deregulation: extracellular neuritic plaques composed of fibrillar β-amyloid peptide (Aβ) and intracellular aggregates composed of hyper-phosphorylated tau, named neurofibrillary tangles. Aggregated forms of these peptides have been considered neurotoxic, however, it is now recognized that soluble forms of these deregulated proteins are causal to the pathology. Soluble, oligomeric forms of Aβ peptide (Aβo) target excitatory synapses where they diminish synaptic function and cause loss of dendritic spines. Recently, it has been shown that the Aβo synaptotoxicity is tau-dependent. Another tauopathy, fronto-temporal dementia with Parkinsonism linked to chromosome 17 (FTDP-17), exhibits synaptotoxicity, which has proved to be dependent on the phosphorylation state of tau. Thus, emerged the concept of synaptic tau in a pathological context. Recent studies have shown that a small quantity of tau is present in synapses under physiological conditions. These new data suggest that tau is a synaptic protein, in addition to being axonal, nuclear and membrane-associated. In this context, the work presented in this thesis characterizes the involvement of tau in synaptic function and its Aβo-induced disturbances. This work was conducted using primary cortical neurons cultured from mice and hippocampus slices and employed biochemical methods and confocal live-cell imaging. To study the impact of a synaptic activation on synaptic tau, we combined bicuculline, an antagonist of GABAa receptors and 4-amino-pyridine, potassium channel blocker, to establish long-term synaptic potentiation. By isolating the post-synaptic compartment (i.e. the fraction containing the post synaptic density and its marker PSD-95), we have shown that synaptic activation induced an enrichment of tau in PSD. This suggests its involvement in synaptic plasticity. The study of the actin cytoskeleton, which is specifically enriched in dendritic spines, revealed that filamentous actin is a molecular partner of tau, which may provide a means of recruiting tau to the synapse. Turning our attention to a pathological context, exposure to Aβo induced tau recruitment to the synapse and disrupts the actin cytoskeleton organization without exogenous synaptic stimulation. This structural modification of the actin cytoskeleton could underlie the disturbance of plasticity and synaptic maintenance induced by Aβo. In conclusion, this thesis provides evidence that tau performs a physiological synaptic function that involves an interaction with the actin cytoskeleton. Further, the synaptic function of tau is altered in pathological conditions (i.e. exposure to Aβo), and may contribute to the cognitive disturbances in AD.