The newly published Highway Safety Manual (HSM) has defined six different driveway types based on land use and parking lot size, including major commercial, minor commercial, major industrial/institutional, minor industrial/institutional, major residential, and minor residential. Major driveways are defined as having more than 50 parking spaces, while minor driveways are defined as those having less than 50 parking spaces. The HSM crash prediction models require the inputs of driveway type and density. However, the actual impacts of different types of driveways on the number of crashes are not clear. The crash modification factors were provided based on few past studies, with high standards of error. The purpose of this research is to develop a method to quantify the impact of driveway types and density on traffic crash frequencies, types, and severities. The different driveway types were collected in the State of Illinois and crashes occurring in the function area of each driveway were identified from the IDOT crash database (from 2005 to 2009). A cross section comparison was conducted to compare the mean crash frequency among different driveways. A further statistical analysis was used to develop a relationship between the density of each driveway type and crash frequency and rates.

M. Tech. / Relative to other industries in South Africa and construction industries worldwide, the South African construction process generates a disproportionate number of fatalities, injuries and disease, the direct and indirect cost of which contribute to the cost of construction. Serious accidents and injuries resulting in personal injury and wrongful death occur with alarming frequency at construction sites in the U.K. The majority of accidents are not caused by careless workers but rather by failure to control. According to the Health and Safety Executive report published in 1988 out of the 90% of all construction accidents leading to death 70% could have been prevented by positive management actions and interventiion. Clients influence construction health and safety performance. Architects and design engineers often disavow responsibility for health and safety issues associated with the construction of their work. Arguably, this denial will only change if clients insist that construction health and safety is addressed on their projects. Health and safety begins with the attitude that accidents are preventable and that requirements for healthy and safe work practices must be followed. Health and safety should not be left solely under the control of the workers if injuries are to be curtailed or diminished, because the health and safety environment consists of many factors over which workers have little or no control. An underlying belief is that the majority of accidents are not caused by careless workers but by failure in controls. Although the best site management of health and safety cannot prevent all accidents, entities other than those actually performing the work do have an important role to play in enforcing proper safety standard measures : It is possible to prevent accidents from occurring. Success in health and safety has a great deal to do with people, especially those who will be responsible for ensuring that the project will be delivered safely. There is some evidence that the importance of health and safety is being realised by clients. Costs associated with worker injuries and fatalities are borne ultimately by the client and insisting that health and safety be included in design and construction considerations will prevent the occurrence of injuries and ultimately reduce the construction costs. Clients mostly set health and safety culture during the construction phase. Health and safety prequalification criteria to design approval post the design phase that shows that clients would prefer their involvement to be in specific phases. Clients do not realise that they can make significant contributions to improve health and safety performance during the early stages of a project. Clients who have to pay for construction work do not make specific cost provision for construction safety. Clients need to afford health and safety the same status as other project parameters. It is widely accepted that contractors should bear the responsibility for health and safety during the construction phase. The study found that clients regarded the construction and maintenance phases as the most important to address health and safety. Again clients do not realise the significance of placing health and safety importance in the initial phases of a project.

Problem: Nurses are potentially exposed to hazardous drugs (HDs) in their practice. HD exposure is associated with adverse outcomes (reproductive problems, learning disabilities in offspring of nurses exposed during pregnancy, and cancer occurrence). Safe handling precautions (safety equipment and personal protective equipment, [PPE]) minimize exposure to HDs and decrease the potential for adverse outcomes. Despite existing OSHA recommendations, adherence to precautions is below recommendations. The purpose of this study was to examine relationships among factors affecting nurses’ use of HD safe handling precautions, to identify factors that promote or interfere with HD precaution use, and to determine nurse managers’ perspectives on use of safe handling precautions. This study used a conceptual model which proposes that both individual and organizational factors influence precaution use. Methods: A cross-sectional, correlational design was used. Nurses (N = 165; 46% response rate) from oncology centers across the US who reported handling chemotherapy completed a mailed survey. Instruments measured HD precaution use, knowledge, self efficacy, barriers, perceived risk, conflict of interest, interpersonal influences and workplace safety climate. Hierarchical regression was used. Twenty managers of nurses handling chemotherapy were interviewed. Results: Nurses were experienced in oncology (M = 15.8 ± 7.6) yrs, well-educated (62.5% ≥BSN), certified in oncology nursing (85%), worked in outpatient settings (69%), and on average treated 6.8 ± 5.2 patients per day. Chemotherapy exposure knowledge was high (M = 10.9, ± 1, 0-12 scale); as was self efficacy for using PPE (M = 20.8 ± 3, 7-24 scale), and perceived risk (M = 3.14 ± .6, 0-4 scale). Total precaution use during HD administration and disposal was low (M = 1.9, SD = 1.1, 0= never to 5 = 100%). Nurse characteristics did not predict HD precaution use. In the final model (R2 = .29, F (2, 155) = 24.6, p < .000), fewer patients per day, fewer barriers and better workplace safety climate were independent predictors of higher precaution use. Conclusions: Results emphasize the importance of organizational influence on nurses’ HD safe handling precaution use and suggest fostering a positive workplace safety climate and reducing barriers as interventions.

M.Ing. / In the mining industry safety is a primary concern. Especially so when it comes to the large conveyances transporting people, equipment and ore up and down the shaft. Even though it has occurred seldomly, a so-called "slack rope event" - when the conveyance gets stuck in its guides - is extremely dangerous. If the conveyance should become freed it will fall freely until all the slack rope has been taken up and then whiplash. The immense strain could lead to complete failure of the rope or suspension mechanisms. The large deceleration rates experienced could in itself be sufficient to cause serious injury or even death to passengers. A strategy to alleviate this danger, originated by Greenway and Hymers (41), is to have passive energy absorber units in parallel to the suspension mechanism of the conveyance. In the event of an emergency the suspension mechanism will be detached and the absorbers will then be activated, safely absorbing the kinetic energy the conveyance has gained. The dynamic behaviour of the system with and without the energy absorbers in a free fall situation was studied and it was clear that the hazards associated with a slack rope event could be successfully alleviated using the energy absorbers. The question that now presented itself was, which energy absorbing mechanism should be used in this application. An encompassing set of qualifying criteria was subsequently set and after extensive research and evaluation the cyclic plastic bending energy absorber was deemed to be most suitable for this application, as also suggested by Greenway and Hymers (41). The device uses a metal element being bent and unbent while being pulled through a set of rollers. The kinetic energy is transformed to plastic metal deformation and dissipated as low grade heat. Further research was then done on this energy absorbtion device. It revealed a substantial amount of background information and two approximate equations for prediction of the resistive force delivered by the device. It was subsequently attempted to find an analytical solution from first principles, to predict the resistive force and characteristic behaviour of the device. Two solutions were obtained, using different approaches to the problem. A number of experiments were then conducted to study the actual characteristics and behaviour of the device. After manipulation of the results it was found that non-dimensional parameters could be formulated which would make it possible to predict the behaviour of full-scale prototypes using small-scale models. Upon comparing the experimental results with the analytical solutions it was found that the two analytical solutions provide an upper and lower bound to the experimental results. Finite element analysis was also utilized to characterize the behaviour of the device and to attempt to predict the resistive force the device delivers. The finite element models revealed some interesting characteristics of the device and mimicked the behaviour of the actual device. However, the resistive force values obtained, deviated slightly more from the experimental values than the scaling method or the analytical solutions. It is thus possible to predict the behaviour of the cyclicplastic- bending energy absorber by utilizing scaling techniques, analytical solutions or the finite element method. The cyclic-plastic-bending energy absorber has a wide spectrum of applications as it is a very versatile and reliable energy absorber.

The need for product safety regulation is no longer a source of debate. It should be the primary aim in any consumer protection policy. This is due to the fact that there are a lot of consumer goods that are heterogeneous and more technologically advanced that are continually being introduced to consumers. Cosmetic products are currently one of the most popular consumer products. Their increase in sales is evident globally including in developing countries. They are no longer solely associated with women but are being used by all people, of all ages. With such popularity, cosmetics producers are eager to make a profit, which sometimes has resulted in the introduction of cosmetics which are not safe and cause adverse effects. This suggests that there might be a loophole in the adequacy of the safety laws or regulations. The possibility of these safety issues occurring anywhere is generally acknowledged, which makes it a global issue. Although such cases are not as frequent as for other consumer goods such as foods or pharmaceuticals, there is a need to investigate the cosmetics safety mechanisms in order to see if consumers are adequately protected and if the safety mechanisms for cosmetics are efficient. In realising this aim, the study takes three jurisdictions to compare, namely the EU, the USA and Malaysia. Through analysis, the ideal features of cosmetics regulations based on the larger picture of safety regulation generally are also considered. This study contrasts the EU and Malaysia, that have in place government regulation of cosmetics, with the USA that has a different regime for cosmetics, more dependent on self-regulation. Out of the three, Malaysia is the newest country that has introduced a new law on cosmetic products and this has been adopted from the EU model. Although discussions on cosmetic regulations have been undertaken in Malaysia, the legal safety issues to which they give rise have not been investigated systematically in comparison with the EU and the USA. Even in these jurisdictions cosmetics safety is not discussed as much as other consumer products. This thesis also investigates why Malaysia has adopted the EU policy and not some other policy such as the American one. Once the above issues have been considered, the impact of the new emerging technology of nano-cosmetics is analysed. The thesis found that, Malaysia, as with any newly introduced system, has experienced some setbacks and encountered teething problems due to a lack of resources, structure, technical facilities and qualified personnel. However, as a developing nation, it certainly has benefited from the adoption of the EU system. Although there is still much room for improvement, this borrowing has benefited consumers, in so far as safety is concerned, because of the common and standard safety assessments and the responsibility of safety now being placed on the manufacturers. Consumers can also enjoy more products due to the elimination of trade barriers through free movement and cooperation between member states

This research explored whether the effectiveness of leadership styles differs in safety-critical contexts compared to contexts where safety is less salient. The existing leadership literature lacks consideration of the context in which leadership takes place. Leadership styles that are valued and effective in one work context, might be less desired and less effective in another context. Using Bass’s (1985) transformational-transactional leadership framework, the present research argues that the extent to which safety is salient within a work environment, impacts on the effectiveness of transformational, transactional and passive leadership. Existing leadership research has focused on transformational leadership, but has paid little attention to transactional leadership. The present research argues that transactional leadership might be effective in safety-critical contexts, but might be less effective in contexts where safety is not salient. In work contexts, where employees are exposed to hazards and there is a high risk for injury, directive leadership practices, such as vigilantly monitoring performance and proactively correcting mistakes (i.e., transactional leadership), might be important for effective leadership. However, if safety is not salient within a work environment, then these leader behaviours might be less relevant. In addition, the research explored the competency of leader flexibility, which refers to leaders’ ability to adjust their behaviour to the requirements of a certain setting. Two questionnaire studies were conducted to investigate the research objectives. In both studies three aspects of safety salience were explored, i.e., level of hazard exposure, likelihood for injury and impact on safety of others. In study 1, the sample consisted of participants with leadership responsibilities who work in contexts with varying degrees of safety salience. Results showed that leaders’ perceived effectiveness of transformational-transactional leadership, and the frequency to which they adopt these two leadership styles, differed in dependence on the level of safety salience. Hazard exposure moderated the relationship between transactional leadership and safety incidents, indicating that transactional leadership is associated with lower incident rates if hazard exposure is high, but not if hazard exposure is low. Leader flexibility showed a significant relationship with leader self-efficacy and team performance whilst controlling for transformational-transactional leadership. In study 2, a two-source design was used where subordinates rated their leader’s behaviour and leaders rated their subordinates’ job and safety performance. The research was conducted in two host organisations; an oil and gas service provider and a food manufacturing company. Safety salience measures were investigated as team-level moderators. Results showed several cross-level interactions, which suggested that team-level safety salience impacts on the influence of transactional, transformational and passive leadership on safety and job performance. The research made an important contribution by merging the transformational-transactional leadership framework with contingency views of leadership (i.e., safety salience as a contextual attribute) and by considering leader flexibility as a leader trait in addition to leader behaviours.

In recent years, forestry programmes in British Columbia have increasingly used helicopters to expedite operations, particularly in the areas of fire suppression and prescribed burning. Between 1970 and 1977 the population of Canadian helicopters doubled, reflecting the increased usage resulting from new, more efficient designs. The number of accidents per year decreased in the 8 years, but the percentage of fatal accidents increased In British Columbia, the accident rate per 10,000 hours in the years 1975 and 1976, was 3.6, the third highest in Canada. After an extensive period of field work in this province, by the author, it is clear that the people working in and around helicopters do not generally receive enough training in the safety precautions necessary. This lack of training was evident at both the worker level and the supervisory level. In fire suppression operations, the inadequate training is aggravated by haste, which greatly increases the chances of unnecessary accidents. This report identifies areas of training that need greater-attention, and it offers some guidelines for future training programmes. The report discusses the fundamentals of helicopter flight, in order that the layman may gain some appreciation of what problems the pilot has to tolerate. Several types of operations are then detailed with safety prescriptions for each one. Some causative factors in each operation are also discussed. The report then analyses the use of helicopters in aerial ignition systems. Of the several systems currently in use, it is clear that the helicopter drip torch is potentially the most hazardous, but to date there have been no serious helicopter drip torch accidents. Finally the report looks at crew deployment techniques, in particular, helicopter rappelling and helitack. The level of training and hazard awareness in these two operations is higher than was generally seen elsewhere, and provides a good example of how helicopters can be used safely and efficiently. Throughout the report, reference is made to past accidents. These accidents show a fundamental lack of safe practice; a situation that would be improved with better training programmes. They also illustrate some of the diverse and disastrous results of poor training. The report recommends that the Workers' Compensation Board of British Columbia should seriously consider setting up a series of training films, which, along with posters and leaflets, could be distributed to the various companies and organisations who use helicopters in the course of their operations. Transport Canada is now preparing a series of general training aids, and these will be made available to interested parties. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate

Poster campaigns have been studied before but never in relation to perceived safety culture. Virtual reality was used to study how safety signage, or lack thereof, affects peoples’ perception of a company’s priority of safety, safety awareness, safety culture, and their own perception of how safe they feel or think a coworker would feel in the environment. There were four virtual scenes used – No Signage, Safety Signs, Safety Posters, and Safety Posters + Safety Signs. The four environments were similar regarding objects, colors, and size; however, the signage on the walls differed in each. Statistical significance was found for each of the five dependent variables tested. Participants scored the scenes using a ten-question survey given after seeing each environment. The results confirm the original hypothesis that safety posters increase the perceived safety culture in an industrial site environment, compared to no signage or only safety signs.

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The question of how an improved safety performance was achieved and what needs to be done to maintain such a performance is investigated. The is done using the example of a laboratory that turned from a bad and worsening safety performance to the best in the organisation. Aspects of transformational leadership, employee empowerment and incident reporting and investigation were examined as contributing factors. In a survey of the laboratory employees, an independent level of safety culture maturity was found, indicating a successful and complete cultural transformation. High levels of employee empowerment were found. Barriers to incident reporting are suggested. In order to maintain a high level of safety performance, the next higher level of safety culture maturity is suggested, together with other recommendations. Further research is suggested from having identified some key factors describing a group having achieved and seeking to maintain an exemplary safety performance. / Graduate School of Business Leadership / (M.B.A.)