A hiporreatividade das células T observada na resposta imune a antígenos de P. brasiliensis de pacientes com paracoccidioidomicose ativa deve contribuir para o não controle da doença, levando à disseminação do fungo. É, na maioria das vezes, reversível com tratamento antifúngico. Os mecanismos que levam a esta hiporreatividade não são bem conhecidos. No entanto, foram demonstrados em resultados prévios em nosso laboratório que células mononucleares de pacientes frente a gp43 apresentam níveis elevados de apoptose. Para tentarmos explicar esse mecanismo, nossa primeira hipótese foi de avaliar se a ativação celular desses pacientes estavam sendo prejudicada por uma ativação inadequada induzida pela expressão alterada de moléculas co-estimulatórias como CD80, CD86, CD28, CD152, ICOS e PD-1. A expressão dessas moléculas foi avaliada em células T e monócitos de pacientes com doença ativa (n = 7...) e controles curados (n = 2...) de um episódio prévio de PCM, mantidas em cultura com antígeno metabólico de Candida albicans (CMA), gp43 ou sem estímulo após 4 dias em cultura. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram que a expressão do CD28 foi comparável entre doentes e controles, e que a expressão de CD152, PD-1 e ICOS, que preferencialmente exercem um papel negativo na sinalização celular, foi maior em células T de pacientes, estimuladas ou não, quando comparadas com células de indivíduos controles. Em paralelo, foram realizados experimentos com a adição dos respectivos anticorpos bloqueadores, que, no entanto, não restabeleceu a proliferação celular dos pacientes. A expressão das moléculas CD80 e CD86 na superfície dos monócitos foi similar em pacientes e controles. Já a expressão dessas moléculas na superfície de linfócitos foi maior nos pacientes tanto em células estimuladas como não estimuladas. O bloqueio com os respectivos anticorpos no dia 0 inibiu a resposta tanto com gp43 como com CMA, porém de forma diferenciada. Nos pacientes e controles a inibição da molécula CD86 diminuiu a resposta tanto para gp43 como para CMA e a inibição da molécula CD80 diminuiu a resposta proliferativa apenas para gp43, e somente no grupo controle, sugerindo que os diferentes antígenos exigem diferentes moléculas durante o processo de apresentação antigênica. A adição desses anticorpos no 4o dia da cultura não modificou a resposta linfoproliferantiva dos pacientes e controles. Nossos dados favorecem a hipótese, derivada de outros modelos de exposição crônica a antígenos exógenos, de que a exposição repetida a antígenos de P. brasiliensis por um longo período in vivo, verificada nos pacientes com paracoccidioidomicose, levam as células T a um estado de tolerância adaptativa, que dificilmente é revertida in vitro. A partir desses resultados analisamos a participação da apoptose de células T nesse provável estado de tolerância nas células dos pacientes. Observamos que a expressão da molécula anti-apoptótica Bcl-2 está diminuída nas células T de pacientes previamente estimuladas comparadas com as células dos controles, e mesmo após o reestímulo in vitro a diminuição da expressão dessa molécula persiste. Desta forma, a diminuição da expressão da molécula Bcl-2 ex vivo nas células T de pacientes sugere fortemente que essas células estão vulneráveis a apoptose. Para corroborar esta hipótese, analisamos a expressão das caspases 8 e 9 na forma ativa. Inicialmente, analisamos a expressão destas moléculas em células mononucleares de pacientes e controles mantidas em cultura por 4 dias com e sem estímulo de CMA e gp43 e observamos que as células dos controles expressam maiores níveis de ambas moléculas em relação as células dos pacientes. Esses resultados foram surpreendentes uma vez que o aumento da expressão de moléculas que estariam direcionando as células para apoptose era esperado em células de pacientes e não de controles. Para explicar este resultado sugerimos a possibilidade (hipótese já apareceu várias vezes) de que as células dos pacientes poderiam estar entrando em apoptose num estágio mais inicial, antes do quarto dia. Por isso realizamos experimentos adicionais em que analisamos a expressão dessas caspases ex vivo. Com essa análise observamos que células TCD3+ de pacientes expressam altos níveis tanto de caspase 8 como caspase 9 comparadas às células de controles. Esses resultados podem ajudar a explicar porque nos ensaios para a análise da resposta proliferativa de pacientes com acréscimo de anticorpos bloqueadores de moléculas coestimulatórias, não houve reconstituição da resposta especifica a gp43: essas células estariam pré-ativadas e pré-programadas para entrarem apoptose, e, portanto, refratárias a tratamentos in vitro, como já descrito em células em estado de tolerância adaptativa. / The T-cell hypoproliferative reactivity observed in the immune response to P. brasiliensis antigens of patients with active paracoccidioidomycosis probably contributes to the failure of the host in controlling the infection, leading to a disseminated disease. It is, however, largely reversible with treatment in most patients. The mechanisms leading to this hyporresponsiveness are not well known. We have previously demonstrated that patients\' mononuclear cells in presence of gp43 exhibit enhanced apoptotic levels. I an attempt to explain such findings, we hypothethized that these cells were inadequately activated due to altered costimulatory molecules expression, such as CD80, CD86, CD28, CD152, ICOS e PD-1. Expression of these molecules were evaluated on T-cells and monocytes of the peripheral blood of patients with active, disseminated PCM (n = 7...), and healthy individuals with a past history of treated and cured PCM (n = 2...). These cells were cultured in presence of a Candida albicans metabolic antigen (CMA), gp43, or kept without exogenous stimuli for 4 days. Our results show tgat the expression of CD28 was comparable between patients an controls\' cells, and that CD152, PD-1 e ICOS, all of which known to deliver negative costimulatory signaling and to arrest cell cycle entry, were overexpressed in patients\' T-cells. In parallel, we performed additional experiments where the respective costimulatory signalings were blocked by addition of blocking antibodies specific to each of these molecules. Whatever the blocking antibody used, there was no reversal of the hypoproliferative state of patients\' T-cells. However, while the expression of the CD80 and CD86 molecules on monocytes was similar between controls and patients, their expression on T-cells was significantly higher in patients. Adding the respective blocking antibodies at day zero of the culture, we could observe that both the gp43 and the CMA responses were inhibited, but differentially according to the antibody employed. In both patients and controls the blocking CD86 signaling decreased the response to gp43 and CMA of patients and controls, while blocking of CD80 signaling decreased only the response to gp43, and only in the control group. These data suggest that different antigens may have different costimulatory requirements for antigen presentation. Addition of the antibodies at the ay 4 of culture did not restore the lymphoproliferative response or modified the response of the controls. Our results suggest that the hypothesis, raised from other models of prolonged foreign antigen exposure, that repetitive and persistent in vivo exposure to fungal antigens, which is described in patients with PCM, lead the T-cells to a adaptive tolerant state, which is hardly reverted in vitro. We then investigated the fate of such putatively tolerized patients\' cells, by analyzing the role that apoptosis may have in this tolerant state. We observed that expression of the antiapoptotic molecule Bcl-2 was lower in patients\' cells, even when the cells were in vitro reestimulated with CMA and gp43, suggesting that the cells are more susceptible to undergo apoptosis. When then analyzed the expression of the active form of the caspase 8 and 9 molecules. We first analyzed their expression on cells kept in cultures for 4 days with or without stimuli. Unexpectedly, we observed that controls\' cells, and not patients\' cells, exhibited higher levels of expression of both molecules. To explore further these data, we tested the hypothesis that the patients\' cells were already undergoing apoptosis at an earlier than 4 days stage. Caspases expression were therefore analyzed ex vivo. In fact, we observed that TCD3+ cells exhibited markedly enhanced caspase 8 and expression as compared to controls\' cells. These findings may help to explain why we failed to redress the proliferative responses to gp43 in the experiments where blocking antibodies were added: these cells would be committed to apoptotic death, thus refractory to in vitro manipulations, as described for adaptively tolerant T-cells.

La maladie de Parkinson (MP) est caractérisée par la dégénérescence des neurones dopaminergiques du mésencéphale. Elle est notamment causée par des évènements délétères tels le stress oxydatif et la neuro-inflammation, et ceux-ci mènent à la destruction des neurones par divers types de mort cellulaire. Dans ce contexte, le Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-activating Polypeptide (PACAP), avec ses propriétés antiapoptotiques, anti-inflammatoires et antioxydantes et son aptitude à traverser la barrière hémoencéphalique (BHE), est capable d’exercer une puissante activité neuroprotectrice dans divers modèles de la MP. Par conséquent, cette molécule est prometteuse pour le développement d’une thérapie médicamenteuse. Toutefois, ses profils pharmacologiques (actions non sélectives) et pharmacocinétiques (faible stabilité métabolique) limitent son utilisation clinique. Ainsi, dans une perspective de mise au point d’une approche thérapeutique, nous avons conçu l’Ac-[Phe(pI)6, Nle17]PACAP(1-27), un analogue du PACAP possédant des profils pharmacologiques et métaboliques améliorés, et avons testé son effet sur des modèles in vitro et in vivo de la MP. In vitro (neuroblastomes humains SH-SY5Y), l’analogue stimule efficacement la production d'AMPc et réduit l’altération de l’activité mitochondriale provoquée par un agent neurotoxique (MPP+; 1-méthyl-4-phénylpyridinium). In vivo (souris traitées avec le 1-méthyl-4-phényl-1,2,3,6-tétrahydropyridine, un précurseur métabolique du MPP+), le PACAP et son dérivé synthétique restaurent l’expression de la tyrosine hydoxylase dans la substance noire et modulent la réponse inflammatoire. Bien que des baisses de la pression artérielle soient observées avec les deux peptides, l'intensité de la chute ainsi que sa durée sont significativement moins élevées avec l'analogue. Nos caractérisations biologiques ont donc montré que la mort neuronale causée par l’agent neurotoxique est considérablement atténuée par l’analogue peptidique. Elles ont également établi que cet effet est peut-être lié à une activité antiapoptotique soutenue. Dans un deuxième temps, nous avons exploré l’effet du PACAP sur le processus autophagique observé dans ces mêmes modèles de la MP. Nous avons ainsi démontré que le PACAP réduit significativement l’activité autophagique, comme évaluée par la production du complexe LC3-II, le rétablissement des niveaux protéiques de la p62, et la diminution de la formation des vacuoles autophagiques. La capacité du PACAP à inhiber l'autophagie a égalementété observée in vitro, et ce, en inhibant l'activité de p62 induite par la rapamycine, uninducteur de l'autophagie. Ainsi, nos travaux ont conduit à la description d’une molécule dérivée du PACAP, métaboliquement stable, qui s’avère aussi puissante que le peptide natif au niveau de la neuroprotection. Ils ont aussi révélé que le PACAP possède des propriétés antiautophagiques dans des modèles de la MP. / Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by the degeneration of mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons. In particular, it is caused by deleterious events such as oxidative stress and neuro-inflammation, which lead to the destruction of neurons by several types of cell death. In this context, the Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide (PACAP), with its antiapoptotic, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, as well as its ability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), is able to exert a potent neuroprotective activity in various PD models. Therefore, this molecule is promising for the development of a PACAP-based drug therapy. However, its pharmacological (non-selective) and pharmacokinetic (low metabolic stability) profiles limit its clinical use. Thus, from the perspective of developing a therapeutic approach, we designed the analog Ac-[Phe(pI)6, Nle17]PACAP(1-27), a PACAP derivative with improved pharmacological and metabolic profiles, and tested its effects in in vitro and in vivo PD models. In vitro (SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells), the analog effectively stimulates the production of cAMP and reduces the alteration of mitochondrial activity caused by a neurotoxic agent (MPP+; 1- methyl-4-phenylpyridinium). In vivo (mice treated with 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine, a metabolic precursor of MPP+), PACAP and its synthetic derivative restore tyrosine hydroxylase expression in the substantia nigra and modulate the inflammatory response. Although decreases in blood pressure were observed with both peptides, the intensity of the fall and its duration were significantly lower with the analog. Our biological characterizations have thus shown that the neuronal death caused by the neurotoxic agent is considerably attenuated by the peptide analog. They also established that this effect may be related to sustained antiapoptotic activity. In a second step, we explored the effect of PACAP on the autophagic process observed in these same PD models. Thus, we have demonstrated that PACAP significantly reduces autophagic activity, as assessed by the production of the LC3-II complex, the restoration of the p62 protein levels, and the decreased formation of autophagic vacuoles. The ability of PACAP to impede autophagy was also observed in vitro, by the inhibition of the p62 activity produced by rapamycin, an inducer of autophagy. In summary, our work led to the description of a PACAP-derived molecule, metabolically stable, that proved to be in neuroprotection as potent as the native peptide. Our studies also revealed that PACAP possesses antiautophagic properties in PD models.

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