University, Diss., 1999--Osnabrück.

This dissertation presents the results of experimental research on the nonlinear refraction in InSb and the experimental demonstration of two nonlinear etalon devices using InSb as the active material. The first portion of the dissertation considers the Dynamic Burstein-Moss Shift model for nonlinearities in narrow-gap semiconductors. The physics and the equations are reviewed, and limitations in describing intensity dependent refraction in a semiconductor are considered. These limitations arise from the nonlinear dependence of charge carrier density upon irradiance. The second portion of the dissertation presents experimental measurements made on the nonlinear refraction of InSb at temperatures between 80 K and 182 K, for wavelengths from 5.75 μm to 6.10 μm, where the photon energy lay in the band tail below 100 cm⁻¹. Measurements of the linear absorption were first made with an infrared spectrometer for temperatures from 80 K to 300 K. The nonlinearity was measured by analyzing the transmission through InSb etalons. Nonlinear transmission curves were digitized and stored with an IBM PC-XT, then a curve fit was performed using the nonlinear refractive index as a fiting parameter. Observations are reported of increasing absorption, due in part to a thermal shift of the absorption edge. The second portion of the work presents the theory and demonstration of a bistable etalon using an edge-injected control beam. Plane-wave nonlinear etalon theory is used to describe the operation of such a device, illustrating the way in which switching and logic gate operation can be obtained. Two devices based on this concept are demonstrated: the 3-port device using a single control beam, and the 2SON gate using two control beams to perform two-input logic operation. The extension of the 2SON gate to an array of pixels, and some considerations for optimizing array performance, are considered. Two appendices follow the body of the dissertation, the first describing the preparation of the InSb etalon samples, and the second detailing several procedures for maintenance and operation of the CO laser used.

Seit der Entdeckung des Spin-Torque durch Berger und Slonczewsky im Jahre 1996 gewann dieser Effekt immer mehr an Einfluss in dem Gebiet der Spintronic. Dies geschah besonders durch den Einfluss des Spin-Torque auf die Informationsspeicher und Kommunikationstechnologien (z.B. die Möglichkeit einen magnetischen Zustand eines Speicherelementes mit Hilfe von Strom und nicht wie bisher durch das Anlegen eines magnetischen Feldes zu ändern, oder die Realisierung eines hochfrequenten Spin-Torque-Oszillator (STO). Aufgrund des direkten Zusammenhangs zwischen der Dämpfung in Ferromagneten und der kritischen Stromdichte, die nötig ist um ein Spin-Ventil zu schalten oder ein Präzidieren der Magnetisierung zu induzieren, wurde die Forschung an Ferromagneten mit geringer Dämpfung zunehmend forciert. In dieser Arbeit werden Studien der ferromagnetischen Resonanz (FMR) von NiMnSb Schichten und Transportmessungen an NiMnSb basierten Spin-Ventilen präsentiert. Das Halbmetall NiMnSb ist mit einer theoretischen 100%igen Spinpolarisation prädestiniert für die Verwendung in GMR Elementen. Neben der theoretisch vorhergesagten hohen Spinpolarisation zeigen die durchgeführten FMR Messungen einen überaus geringen Dämpfungsfaktor für dieses Material. Dieser liegt in der Größenordnung von wenigen 10-3. Somit ist die Dämpfung in NiMnSb um den Faktor zwei geringer als in Permalloy und gut vergleichbar mit epitaktisch gewachsenen Eisen-Schichten. Neben den guten Dämpfungseigenschaften zeigen jedoch theoretische Modelle den Verlust der 100%igen Spinpolarisation durch das Brechen der Translationssymmetrie an Grenzflächen und das Kollabieren der Aufspaltung im Minoritäts-Spin-Band. Da ein Wachstum in (111) Richtung diesen Prozess entgegen wirken kann, werden in dieser Arbeit zudem auf (111)(In,Ga)As gewachsene NiMnSb Schichten mittels FMR untersucht. Die Messungen an diesen Proben zeigen, im Vergleich zu (001) orientierten Schichten, eine erhöhte Dämpfung. Zudem kann bei diesen Schichten eine schichtdickenabhängige uni-direktionale magnetische Anisotropie gemessen werden. Im Hinblick auf den möglichen industriellen Einsatz in Speicherelementen werden überdies Messungen an Sub-Mikrometer großen NiMnSb Elementen auf (001) orientierten Substraten präsentiert. Die Elemente wurden mittels Elektronenstrahllithographie hergestellt und mittels FMR vermessen. Auch die so prozessierten Schichten zeigen einen Dämpfungsfaktor im unteren 10-3 Bereich. Das Auftreten von magnetostatischen Moden in den Messungen ist ein weiterer indirekter Nachweis der hohen Qualität der NiMnSb-Schichten. Im Jahre 2001 wurde von Mizukamie und seinen Kollegen eine dickenabhängige Erhöhung der Gilbertdämpfung bei, mit Metallen bedeckten, Permalloy-Schichten beobachtet. Im Jahr darauf wurde von Tserkovnyak, Brataas und Bauer eine Theorie erarbeitet die dieses Phänomen auf ein Pumpen von Spins aus dem Ferromagneten in die Metalschicht zurückführt. Aus diesem Grund werden Messungen von NiMnSb Schichten, die mit verschiedenen Metallen und Isolatoren in-situ vor Oxidation geschützt wurden, präsentiert. Nach diesen materialspezifischen Voruntersuchungen werden auf NiMnSb und Permalloy basierte Pseudo-Spin-Ventile unter Verwendung eines selbst ausrichtenden lithographischen Prozesses hergestellt. Transportmessungen an den Proben zeigen ein GMRVerhältnis von 3,4% bei Raumtemperatur und fast das doppelte bei tiefen Temperaturen. Diese sind sehr gut vergleichbar mit den besten veröffentlichten GMR-Verhältnissen für Einzelschichtsysteme. Überdies kann in den Experimenten eine viel versprechend geringe kritische Stromdichte, die nötig ist, um die magnetische Orientierung zu ändern, gemessen werden. Diese ist vergleichbar mit kritischen Stromdichten aktuellster metallbasierter GMR-Elemente oder auf dem Tunneleffekt basierenden Spin-Ventilen. Das eigentliche Potential der auf NiMnSb basierenden Spin-Ventile wird erst ersichtlich wenn diese als STO zum Emittieren hochfrequenter, durchstimmbarer und schmalbandiger elektromagnetischer Wellen verwendet werden. Auf Heusler basierende STO zeigen einen überdurchschnittlich hohen q-Faktor von 4180, sogar im Betrieb ohne extern angelegtes Magnetfeld. Dieser ist um mehr als eine Größenordnung höher als der höchste veröffentliche q-Faktor eines ohne externes Feld arbeitenden STO. Während die Heusler basierten STO ebenso wie alle anderen STO unter einer geringen Ausgangsleistung leiden, machen die Maßstäbe im Sub-Mikrometer Bereich eine On-Chip Herstellung möglich. Somit kann durch ein Parallelschalten von gekoppelten Oszillatoren eine Erhöhung der Ausgangsleistung erzielt werden. / Since the discovery of spin torque in 1996, independently by Berger and Slonczewski, and given its potential impact on information storage and communication technologies, (e.g. through the possibility of switching the magnetic configuration of a bit by current instead of a magnetic field, or the realization of high frequency spin torque oscillators (STO), this effect has been an important field of spintronics research. One aspect of this research focuses on ferromagnets with low damping. The lower the damping in a ferromagnet, the lower the critical current that is needed to induce switching of a spin valve or induce precession of its magnetization. In this thesis ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) studies of NiMnSb layers are presented along with experimental studies on various spin-torque (ST) devices using NiMnSb. NiMnSb, when crystallized in the half-Heusler structure, is a half-metal which is predicted to have 100% spin polarization, a consideration which further increases its potential as a candidate for memory devices based on the giant magnetoresistance (GMR) effect. The FMR measurements show an outstandingly low damping factor for NiMnSb, in low 10-3 range. This is about a factor of two lower than permalloy and well comparable to lowest damping for iron grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). According to theory the 100% spin polarization properties of the bulk disappear at interfaces where the break in translational symmetry causes the gap in the minority spin band to collapse but can remain in other crystal symmetries such as (111). Consequently NiMnSb layers on (111)(In,Ga)As buffer are characterized in respect of anisotropies and damping. The FMR measurements on these samples indicates a higher damping that for the 001 samples, and a thickness dependent uniaxial in-plane anisotropy. Investigations of the material for device use is pursued by considering sub-micrometer sized elements of NiMnSb on 001 substrates, which were fabricated by electron-beam lithography and measured by ferromagnetic resonance. The damping remains in the low 10-3 range as determined directly by extracting the Gilbert damping from the line width. Additionally magnetostatic modes are observed in arrays of elements, which is further evidence of high material quality of the samples. By sputtering various metals on top of the NiMnSb, spin pumping from the ferromagnet into the non-magnetic layer is investigated. After these material investigations, pseudo-spin-valves using NiMnSb as one of the ferromagnet, in combination with Permalloy were fabricating using a self-aligned lithography process. These samples show a GMR ratio of 3.4% at room temperature and almost double at low temperature, comparing favourably to the best single stack GMR structures reported to date. Moreover, current induced switching measurements show promisingly low current densities are necessary to change the magnetic orientation of the free layer. These current densities compete with state-of-the-art GMR devices for metal based structures and almost with tunnel junction devices. The true potential of these devices however comes to light when they are operated as spin torque oscillators to emit high frequency, tunable, narrow spectrum electromagnetic waves. These Heusler based STOs show an outstanding q-factor of 4180, even when operating in the absence of an external field, a value which bests the highest value in the literature by more than an order of magnitude. While these devices currently still suffer from the same limited output power as all STO reported to date, their sub-micron lateral dimensions make the fabrication of an on-chip array of coupled oscillators, which is a promising path forward towards industrially relevant output power.

Thermoelectric materials are solid state devices having the capability to convert heat to electrical energy and vice versa. These materials are simple, have no moving parts and use no greenhouse gases. But the major drawback of these materials is their low conversion efficiency. Hence enhancement of thermoelectric efficiency is required to make the use of these devices widespread. Thermoelectric efficiency is related to a parameter termed figure of merit, ZT which is associated with the inter-related transport properties such as Seebeck coefficient, electrical and thermal conductivity. Efficient thermoelectric material should possess high Seebeck coefficient (S), high electrical conductivity () and low thermal conductivity (). The present investigation revolves around improvement of ZT of CoSb3 either by chemical doping or through microstructural modifications. These materials possess structural voids, which can be filled with foreign atoms. The rattling motion of these filler atoms reduces the thermal conductivity of these materials, thereby increasing the thermoelectric efficiency. The rattler atoms chosen for the present study are Mn and Yb. Both coarse and fine-grained MnxCo4Sb12 (x = 0. 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.2 and 1.6) and Yb0.19Co4Sb12 have been synthesized and subjected to various structural and functional property characterizations. The structural study based on Rietveld Analysis and the corresponding difference Fourier maps confirms the void occupancy by Mn and Yb in MnxCo4Sb12 (x 0.2, 0.4 and 0.8) and Yb0.19Co4Sb12. In higher Mn content, x=1.2 and 1.6, Mn was found to partially substitute Co site and partially fill the voids and the remaining precipitated out as free particles. A comparative study of coarse and fine-grained CoSb3 has thrown light in to the grain size effect on the thermoelectric properties. Lowering of grain size helped in enhancement of ZT in CoSb3. Seebeck coefficient (thermoelectric power), electrical and thermal conductivity have been measured for different concentrations of the filler Mn atoms between 300K and 673K. A change in sign of the Seebeck coefficient from negative to positive occurs, when Mn concentration exceeds x=0.8. Electrical resistivity values was found to decrease initially with Mn filling with the minimum value at Mn content, x=0.4 and then gradually increase as Mn content increases. The thermal conductivity value decreases with Mn content in the CoSb3 indicating their rattling property which helps in the enhancement of the overall thermoelectric efficiency. There is a reduction in the value of ktotal in Mn filled CoSb3 than that of the unfilled counterpart. This decrease in the ktotal is a clear indication of the rattling motion of the filler Mn atom in the structural void of CoSb3. Highest ZT of 0.36 is achieved by Mn0.4Co4Sb12 at 373K. Higher concentration of Mn (with x= 1.2 and 1.6) proved to be detrimental in terms of improvement of the value of ZT. Grain size reduction helped in improvement of ZT in Mn0.2Co4Sb12. Maximal ZT of 0.06 at 523K is achieved in hot pressed Mn0.2Co4Sb12. The corresponding coarse-grained material is found to possess ZT of 0.01 at the said temperature. The enhancement can be attributed to high / ratio and high density. Similarly, fine grained Yb0.19Co4Sb12 shows higher ZT compared to the coarse-grained sample because high / and high S.

This research is related to the molecular beam epitaxy (MBE ) to grow GaSb . The fabrication of GaSb/InGaSb strained quantum well and superlattice structures are used for photodetection . They are carefully investigated to obtain high quality of GaSb films. The growth mechanisms related to the major factors of (1) Subtrate temperature (2) Beam flux ratio(V/III). The properties of GaSb epilayers are characterized by different methods such as the X-ray diffraction , I-V curve and Raman spectra . The optimum growth conditions 500¢J of substrate temperature and the V/III flux ratio about 2~3 have been obtained. On the basis of structure, the best growth conditions is identified by the peak intensity and FWHM related to the quality of the GaSb films by the X-ray diffraction. On the basis of electrical property, the best growth conditions is identified by the lowest leakage current for the p-n junction related to the quality of the GaSb films by the I-V curve. On the basis of optical property, the best growth conditions is identified by the LO mode phonon intensity related to the quality of the GaSb films by the Raman spectra. Based on the GaSb growth studied here, the study will be focused in the quantum well and quantum dot laser devices furtherly by us.

Universiẗat, Diss., 2003--Freiburg (Breisgau).

No description available.

This thesis investigation concerns the optical and nonlinear electrical properties of n-InSb. Two specific areas have been studied. First is the magneto-optical study of magneto-donors, and second is the nonlinear dynamic study of nonlinear and chaotic oscillations in InSb. The magneto-optical study of InSb provides a physical picture of the magneto-donor levels, which has an important impact on the physical model of nonlinear and chaotic oscillations. Thus, the subjects discussed in this thesis connect the discipline of semiconductor physics with the field of nonlinear dynamics.

The Shubnikov-de Haas effect is an oscillation in the electrical resistivity or conductivity of a metal, semimetal, or semiconductor as a function of changing magnetic field which occurs at low temperatures. The effect is caused by the quantization of the momentum and energy of the charge carriers by the magnetic field. Since the nature of the oscillation depends strongly on the energy band structure of the material in which it is measured, the effect could be quite useful as an investigative tool. Its usefulness has been limited, however, by the uncertainty as to the functional form of the relationship between the measured oscillations and the parameters characterizing the material. One purpose of the present study is to extend the usefulness of the Shubnikov-de Haas effect by experimentally determining the functional form appropriate for a material such as n-type indium antimonide. The second purpose of the study is to determine values for the parameters which characterize the band structure of indium antimonide. The curve fitting procedure is found to be a powerful tool for investigating band structure. All computer programs used in processing the data, fitting the data, and comparing the results with the Kane model are given.

The influence of uniaxial compression upon the Hall effect ad resistivity of cadmium-doped samples of InSb at 77 K, 64 K, and 12 K are reported. Unilaxial compressions as high as 6 kbar were applied to samples oriented in the {001} and {110} directions. The net hole concentration of the samples were about 5x10^13 cm^-3 at 77 K as determined from the Hall coefficient at 24 kilogauss. The net concentration of hole carriers decreases and then increases exponentially with stress at 77 k and 64 k, while at 12 k there is only a monotonic increase of carrier concentration with stress. Analysis of the hole concentration as a function of stress shows the presence of a deep acceptor level located about 90 meV above the valence band edge in additionb to the 10 meV vadmium acceptor level. The shallow acceptor level does not split with stress. The hole density data is represented very well by models which describe both the variation in the net density of states and motion of the acceptor levels as a function of stress.