<p>The focus of this study is on evaluating the performance of nine, one-third scale, arching, reinforced masonry (RM) walls subjected to blast loads and three, one-third scale arching, RM walls subjected to out-of-plane static airbag loads. These RM walls were supported on four sides to enforce two-way arching allowing the ability to monitor individual response to varying levels of blast loads and standoff distances. The uniformity of the blast pressure and impulse were ensured by a specifically designed test enclosure, diminishing the wrap-around and clearing effects, allowing valuable data to be documented. The damage levels noted, ranged from Superficial to Blowout compared directly to the CSA S850-12 performance limits. The outcome of this experiment demonstrates the beneficial effect of two-way arching on the flexural behaviour of RM walls under impulsive loading. The use of two-way arching RM walls significantly reduces structural damage and increases out-of-plane resistance, which in turn enhances the overall structural integrity and building preservation. Further, when subjected to blast, two-way arching RM walls considerably reduces debris and their dispersal, thus increasing public safety and minimizing hazard levels. When using the experimental test data results to calibrate finite element models (FEM), more analytical data points can be obtained and therefore getting a larger range of scaled distances and trials. The validation of the LS-DYNA model can be used as an alternative to the costly experimental data, as the information collected concluded that the FEM gave damage patterns and failure modes that were comparable with experimental results. The test data collected provides a better understanding of RM wall response to blast loads and to the ongoing Masonry Blast Performance Database (MBPD) project at McMaster University. The generated MBPD will in turn contribute to masonry design clauses in the future editions of the recently introduced Canadian Standards CSA S850-12 “Design and Assessment of Buildings Subjected to Blast Loads”.</p> / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

Yes / In this study, large-scale fully instrumented laboratory tests were conducted to investigate the behaviour of buried flexible high-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipes, in sand beds with and without voids subjected to incrementally increasing cyclic loading. Voids with a predetermined size were created at one side of the springlines of the pipes, which were buried at variable depths, H, of 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5 times the diameter of the pipe, D. Results showed that increasing the pipe burial depth, H/D, contributed to decreasing the settlement of the footing, deformation of the pipe crown and invert, lateral displacement of the spring-line, and the stress and strain generated along the pipe crown and invert. Void presence led to a significant increase in the footing settlement, which ranged from 3 % up to 18 %, according to H/D. Furthermore, void presence led to a sharp increase in the crown, invert, and spring-line settlements, which ranged from 34 % to 52 %, 10 %–12.5 %, and 13 %–38 %, respectively. Increasing pipe burial depth was found to be highly effective in protecting buried pipes, minimising inevitable consequences of the presence of voids. However, this was combined with an increase in the pressure at the pipe spring-line that led to a positive horizontal support at the pipe’s spring-lines resulting in reducing pipe deformation.

As galerias enterradas são amplamente utilizadas em obras de arte corrente (OAC) na infraestrutura de rodovias e ferrovias. Visando disponibilizar mais alternativas na produção de galerias de concreto pré-moldado, a pesquisa apresenta uma análise comparativa de custos para seções transversais não usuais, direcionado a grandes profundidades de instalação. A primeira seção proposta é denominada modificada e é composta por uma base retangular com uma cobertura em arco e a segunda seção proposta é definida por três arcos com uma base plana. Essas seções além de possuir formato de geometria favorável à distribuição dos esforços solicitantes, mantêm o benefício de possibilitar uma compactação adequada do solo na lateral da galeria, como acontece em galerias retangulares convencionais, e isso garante o confinamento do solo e a redistribuição de pressões, graças à mobilização do efeito de arqueamento. Para considerar a interação solo-estrutura foram realizadas análises via elementos finitos com o pacote computacional GeoStudio&#174; próprio para análises geotécnicas. Os resultados comprovaram a interferência do formato das geometrias no comportamento da interação solo-galeria e também evidenciaram que a redução da espessura das paredes da galeria mobiliza em maior intensidade a capacidade resistente do solo e isso reduz os esforços na estrutura. Quanto à análise dos dimensionamentos, com base na comparação dos custos evidenciou-se que, para as galerias modificadas a redução das taxas de armadura está relacionada com flecha do arco da cobertura, sendo que a economia verificada no custo total de materiais das seções estudadas variou de 4 a 29% comparado à galeria retangular. Para a galeria definida por três arcos, confirmou-se que quanto mais alongado for o seu formato, melhor é o comportamento à grandes profundidades de instalação, sendo que a economia verificada no custo total da galeria mais elíptica (DTA I-b) chegou a 50% em relação à galeria retangular e demais geometrias estudadas tiveram economia entre 17 e 42%. / Box culverts are often used in current drainage in the infrastructure of highways and railways. In order to provide more production\'s alternatives of precast concrete culvert, the research presents the comparative cost analysis for unusual cross sections, directed to large depths of installation. The first proposed cross section called modified culvert is composed of a rectangular base with an arc roof. The second is defined by three arcs with a flat base. These cross sections have geometric shapes favorable to the distribution of bending moment and shear forces. It maintains the benefit of adequate compaction of the backfill at the side of the culvert, as well as in conventional box culvert, which ensures ground confinement and pressure redistribution due to the mobilization of the arching effect. In order to consider the soil-structure interaction, finite element analyzes were performed using GeoStudio&#174; software, which is a computational package specific for geotechnical analysis. The results showed that the geometries have influence on the behavior of the soil-culvert interaction, and that the reduction of the thickness of the culvert walls mobilizes the soil resistant capacity, reducing the stresses in the structure. Regarding the structural design, considering the comparison of costs, it was evidenced a reduction of steel reinforcements for the modified culvert, which is related to the arrow of the arc of the cover. The materials saving verified in the total cost of the studied sections ranged from 4% to 29% compared to the box culvert. For the culvert defined by three arches, it was evidenced that the more elongated its geometry, better the behavior for the great depths of installation. The highest materials saving was verified in the total cost of the most elliptical culvert (DTA I-b), which reached a value of 50%. Compared to the box culvert, the others geometries studied had savings between 17-42%.

Le but de cette étude est d'étudier le renforcement des sols par inclusions rigides sous chargement complexe et cyclique. L'effet de certains paramètres liés à la définition d’un chargement complexe et cyclique sur le comportement du système est mis en évidence.Du point de vue des chargements statiques complexes, des semelles de fondation posées sur un sol compressible renforcé par inclusions rigides sans matelas soumis à des charges centrées, excentrées verticales et horizontales et à quelques cycles de charge ont été étudiées. Des approches numériques et expérimentales sont présentées. Les résultats des mesures expérimentales et numériques permettent de mettre en évidence le comportement de ces systèmes en termes de contrainte sur la tête d'inclusion et sur le sol compressible, de déplacements verticaux et latéraux de la semelle et du déplacement latéral de l'inclusion. L'efficacité de la semelle renforcée est comparée à celle d’une semelle non renforcée.Une modélisation 3D de solutions de fondations pour les éoliennes est étudiée. La combinaison d’un chargement vertical et de différents moments appliqués à la fondation est prise en compte. Le sol compressible renforcé par inclusions rigides est considéré comme une option qui est comparée à d’autres solutions plus classiques (fondation superficielle et radier sur pieux). Les résultats obtenus permettent de présenter l’impact sur le tassement du sol, la rotation de la fondation, les efforts axiaux et les moments fléchissants dans les inclusions rigides. Les résultats numériques indiquent enfin que la technique d'amélioration du sol par inclusions rigides peut être une solution appropriée pour les fondations d'éoliennes.En ce qui concerne les aspects cycliques, trois points principaux sont abordés. Dans un premier temps, la modélisation numérique d’essais en laboratoire d’un renforcement de sol par inclusions rigides soumis à des chargements monotones et des cycles limités de chargement mise en œuvre. Le modèle hypoplastique (HYP) est utilisé pour modéliser le comportement de la plate-forme de transfert de charge. Les résultats numériques sont validés à la fois par rapport aux données expérimentales et numériques de Houda (2016). L'influence des conditions aux limites et de l'état du sol compressible est mise en évidence. Les résultats numériques indiquent qu'il est possible de considérer le comportement cyclique du sol renforcé par inclusions rigides en utilisant le modèle HYP.Dans un second temps, un remblai renforcé par des inclusions rigides sous un nombre élevé de chargement cyclique est étudié. Deux niveaux de complexité différents pour le modèle constitutif (HYP et le modèle élastique linéaire parfaitement plastique avec un critère de rupture de type Mohr-Coulomb) ont été pris en compte pour étudier le comportement de la LTP et analyser le comportement cyclique du système. Le modèle HYP est proposé pour la suite des études car il permet de bien capturer la décroissance et l’accumulation des tassements avec le nombre de cycles de charge. L'effet des paramètres qui sont le nombre de cycles de charge, l'amplitude et la fréquence (induite par la vitesse du trafic) et la hauteur du remblai est également présentée.Finalement, une étude sur la réponse cyclique d'un remblai de GRPS est menée. En comparant le remblai renforcé par des géosynthétiques (GRPS) avec le remblai renforcé par inclusions (PE), le rôle du géosynthétique est mis en évidence sous des chargements statiques et cycliques. L'influence du nombre de cycles de chargement et du nombre de géosynthétiques sur l'effet de voute et les tassements cumulés est également discutée. / The aim of the study is to investigate the soil improvement by rigid inclusions under complex and cyclic loadings, and to highlight the effect of some parameters related to complex and cyclic loading on the system behavior.Concerning the static complex loading, footings over rigid inclusion-reinforced soil without mattress subjected to centered, eccentrically vertical and horizontal loads, and load cycles are first studied. Numerical and experimental approaches are presented. Monitored and numerical results permit to show the behavior of these reinforced systems in terms of stresses on the inclusion head and soft soil, vertical and lateral displacements of the footings and lateral displacement of the inclusions. The efficiency of the reinforced footing is also presented and compared to the unreinforced one.A 3D modeling of the foundation solutions for wind turbines is presented. The combination of vertical loading and different moments applied to the foundation is taken into account. The inclusion-improved soft soil under footing is considered as a foundation option and, compared to classical ones (shallow foundation and piled raft). The obtained results are illustrated concerning the ground surface settlements, the foundation rotations, the axial forces and bending moments of the reinforcements. The numerical results indicate that the soil improvement technique by rigid inclusions can be an appropriate solution for the wind turbine foundations.With regard to the cyclic aspects, three main concerns are studied. Firstly, the numerical modeling of laboratory tests on a soil improvement by rigid inclusions subjected to monotonic loading and a limited load cycles is carried out, in which the hypoplasticity (HYP) model is used to model the load transfer platform (LTP). The numerical results are validated against both the experimental data and numerical ones of Houda (2016). The influence of the boundary condition and soft soil state are figured out. The numerical results indicate that it is possible to address the cyclic behavior of the rigid inclusion-reinforced soil by using the HYP model.Secondly, a piled embankment under a high number of cyclic loadings is studied. Two different levels of complexity for the constitutive models are used (HYP and a simpler one the linear elastic perfectly plastic constitutive model with a shear criteria of Mohr-Coulomb). These models were considered to model the behavior of the LTP and analyze the cyclic behavior of the system. The HYP model is then suggested for the following studies since it can capture well the arching decrease and the cumulated settlements under the load cycles number. The effect of the parameters that are load cycles number, amplitude and frequency (induced by traffic speed), and embankment height is illustrated as well.Finally, a study on the cyclic response of a GRPS embankment is conducted. By comparing the geosynthetic-reinforced pile-supported (GRPS) embankment with the piled embankment (PE), the role of the geosynthetic is verified under static and cyclic loading aspects. The influence of the load cycles number and the geosynthetic layers number on the arching effect and cumulative settlements is shown as well.

As galerias enterradas são amplamente utilizadas em obras de arte corrente (OAC) na infraestrutura de rodovias e ferrovias. Visando disponibilizar mais alternativas na produção de galerias de concreto pré-moldado, a pesquisa apresenta uma análise comparativa de custos para seções transversais não usuais, direcionado a grandes profundidades de instalação. A primeira seção proposta é denominada modificada e é composta por uma base retangular com uma cobertura em arco e a segunda seção proposta é definida por três arcos com uma base plana. Essas seções além de possuir formato de geometria favorável à distribuição dos esforços solicitantes, mantêm o benefício de possibilitar uma compactação adequada do solo na lateral da galeria, como acontece em galerias retangulares convencionais, e isso garante o confinamento do solo e a redistribuição de pressões, graças à mobilização do efeito de arqueamento. Para considerar a interação solo-estrutura foram realizadas análises via elementos finitos com o pacote computacional GeoStudio&#174; próprio para análises geotécnicas. Os resultados comprovaram a interferência do formato das geometrias no comportamento da interação solo-galeria e também evidenciaram que a redução da espessura das paredes da galeria mobiliza em maior intensidade a capacidade resistente do solo e isso reduz os esforços na estrutura. Quanto à análise dos dimensionamentos, com base na comparação dos custos evidenciou-se que, para as galerias modificadas a redução das taxas de armadura está relacionada com flecha do arco da cobertura, sendo que a economia verificada no custo total de materiais das seções estudadas variou de 4 a 29% comparado à galeria retangular. Para a galeria definida por três arcos, confirmou-se que quanto mais alongado for o seu formato, melhor é o comportamento à grandes profundidades de instalação, sendo que a economia verificada no custo total da galeria mais elíptica (DTA I-b) chegou a 50% em relação à galeria retangular e demais geometrias estudadas tiveram economia entre 17 e 42%. / Box culverts are often used in current drainage in the infrastructure of highways and railways. In order to provide more production\'s alternatives of precast concrete culvert, the research presents the comparative cost analysis for unusual cross sections, directed to large depths of installation. The first proposed cross section called modified culvert is composed of a rectangular base with an arc roof. The second is defined by three arcs with a flat base. These cross sections have geometric shapes favorable to the distribution of bending moment and shear forces. It maintains the benefit of adequate compaction of the backfill at the side of the culvert, as well as in conventional box culvert, which ensures ground confinement and pressure redistribution due to the mobilization of the arching effect. In order to consider the soil-structure interaction, finite element analyzes were performed using GeoStudio&#174; software, which is a computational package specific for geotechnical analysis. The results showed that the geometries have influence on the behavior of the soil-culvert interaction, and that the reduction of the thickness of the culvert walls mobilizes the soil resistant capacity, reducing the stresses in the structure. Regarding the structural design, considering the comparison of costs, it was evidenced a reduction of steel reinforcements for the modified culvert, which is related to the arrow of the arc of the cover. The materials saving verified in the total cost of the studied sections ranged from 4% to 29% compared to the box culvert. For the culvert defined by three arches, it was evidenced that the more elongated its geometry, better the behavior for the great depths of installation. The highest materials saving was verified in the total cost of the most elliptical culvert (DTA I-b), which reached a value of 50%. Compared to the box culvert, the others geometries studied had savings between 17-42%.

La pâleur des témoignages distillés par une Antiquité tardive et un haut Moyen Âge roussillonnais, pourtant florissant, a jeté un voile nous privant pour longtemps de toute la richesse chromatique d’une longue période, qui n’a d’obscure que les a priori que l’on s’en fait. Opérer une introspection sur la genèse du vocabulaire formel chrétien est inévitable pour en comprendre les raccourcis, ceux souvent initiés par une vision monofocale n’offrant que trop peu souvent la possibilité d’envisager le bâtiment ecclésial selon sa polysémie : tout à la fois lieux de l’accomplissement du culte, de rassemblement des fidèles, mais aussi lieux d’expression techniques et artistiques. Un condensé, en somme, au cœur d’une société en mutation, où les différents acteurs politiques n’ont eu, en réalité, qu’un impact modéré.Les modestes églises rurales anté-romanes, par leurs structures et leurs modes de construction, sont finalement révélatrices d’un héritage et d’une continuité, jusque là minimisés, voire insoupçonnés. En choisissant de ne pas dissocier l’évolution des techniques de celle des formes, tout en prenant en compte les nouvelles perspectives soulevées par l’archéologie médiévale, pour d’autres territoires, les postulats chronologiques s’étiolent, se faisant moins relatifs et plus impartiaux. Entre relecture et reformulation, il convient maintenant d’envisager une mise à l’épreuve de l’architecture préromane. / The scarcity of evidence trickled down from the late Antiquity and the Roussillon Early Middle Ages, although quite flourishing, has casta veil depriving us for quitea while of all the chromatic richness of a long era, obscure only because of the a priori one has about it. Carrying out an introspection into the genesis of the formal Christian vocabulary is an absolute must to understand its shortcuts, those being often brought about by a monofocal vision too rarely offering the opportunity to consider the church building according to its polysemy: worshipping and congregating places for the believers as well as places where their craftmanship and art could be expressed. A summary, all in all,in the midst of a mutating society where the various political actors have only had in fact a moderate impact.The humbleante-Romanesque rural churches, by their structures and their method of building are eventually revealing of a legacy and a continuity played downuntil now, unsuspectedindeed. By choosing not to dissociate the evolution of techniques from that of the forms while factoring in the new prospects brought up by medieval archaeology, for other areas, the chronological postulates weaken, becoming less relative and more unbiased. Between rereading and rewording, it is now advisable to consider putting to the test pre-Romanesque architecture.

Tunnels and anthropogenic underground cavities are a very natural part of our everyday modern life. Especially in larger cities such as Stockholm where the infrastructure reaches far above ground level as well as deep below the surface. Metro, commuter train, cars along with many other ways of transportation have been moved below the surface the last century. Before then there were neither the technology nor the knowledge of how tunnels and underground cavities should be constructed so that the safety is not neglected. Several different forces are present in the bedrock below us, such as the weight of the overlying rock/strata and stresses due to tectonic, thermal, or hydrostatic forces among other. Knowledge of these forces and stresses are essential so that you will not get a piece of rock falling on your head on your way home from work with the metro. In most of the cases the roof of tunnels or underground cavities are shaped like an arch, and the stability of these arches depends on several aspects. At excavation of rock, there are natural arches in the bedrock. However, the stability of these arches depends on stresses, amount of overlying rock and the presence of rock joints and fractures (amount, directions and the characteristics of rock joints and fractures are important). These among other aspects determine the stability and the size of the arch. The natural arch in a manmade underground cavity or tunnel is seldom sufficient for it to be safe enough for humans to be in. There is a need for reinforcement of different kinds, where rock bolting is one of the most common. This bachelor’s thesis used a model to simulate arches in tunnels and cavities. The model which simulated an arch was an uplifted box (820x820x250 mm) with railroad macadam, pressure gauges and systematically placed bolts (threaded rods with nuts and washers at each end). The bottom part of the uplifted box could be removed. With a torque wrench the macadam was subjected to different torques, and the bolts were then removed according to a pattern to see at which torques and stresses the model held. The purpose of the thesis was to develop a refined method for bolt model so that controlled experiments could be done. The purpose was as well to determine how important the stresses in the rock is for the span of the arch. The thesis should also function as an instruction for future experiments at the university.  According to the results of the experiments, both lower stresses and higher stresses gave rise to a large arch span. In many cases, an even stress distribution in the model resulted in a greater arch span, but in some cases not. More experiments would have to be done to reach a reliable result. Therefore, there is great potential for other students to continue these experiments. / Tunnlar och bergrum är i modern tid så vanliga att många knappt märker att en befinner sig i ett bergrum i sin vardag. Inte minst i större städer såsom Stockholm där infrastrukturen sträcker sig högt över markytan såväl som långt ner i berggrunden. Tunnelbana, biltrafik, tågtrafik är några transportsätt som ofta har förflyttats under jord det senaste århundradet. Innan dess fanns varken tekniken eller kunskapen om hur tunnlar och bergrum ska konstrueras för att säkerheten ska vara tillräckligt hög. I berget under oss finns det flera krafter som verkar, däribland vikten från ovanliggande berg, spänningar av tektoniska, termala eller hydrostatiska ursprung. Kunskap om dessa spänningar är väsentliga för att du inte ska få ett bergblock i huvudet när åker hem från jobbet med tunnelbanan. I de allra flesta fall har bergrummet eller tunneln ett tak format som ett valv, och stabiliteten av dessa valv beror på flera aspekter. När berguttag sker finns det en naturlig valvverkan som existerar i berget. Höga spänningar, mängden överliggande berg och förekomsten av sprickor (mängd, riktningar och egenskaper hos sprickorna) är några faktorer som påverkar stabiliteten av valvet och hur stort valvet kan vara. Den naturliga valvverkan i en antropogen tunnel är sällan tillräcklig för att valvet ska hålla och vara säkert för människor ska vistas i. Det krävs bergförstärkning av olika typer, där bultförstärkning är vanligt förekommande.  Arbetet gick ut på att simulera valv i berg med hjälp av en modell. Modellen efterliknar ett tunneltak och består av en upphöjd låda (820x820x250mm) med järnvägsmakadam, systematiskt placerade bultar (stänger med bricka och mutter i varje ände) och tryckmätare. Lådan har en avtagbar botten. Experimentet gick ut på att spänna upp makadammet med olika vridmoment, och se vid vilka moment det håller när bultarna succesivt tas bort i en viss ordning. Syftet med arbetet var att ta fram en förfinad metodik för bultmodell så att kontrollerade försök kan genomföras samt fastställa spänningars betydelse för spännvidd av valv. Uppsatsen ska även kunna användas som instruktion för framtida försök vid universitetet.  Resultatet visade att en stor spännvidd uppstod vid både höga och låga spänningar. En jämnare spänningsfördelning gav i flera fall en större spännvidd, men i andra fall inte. Fler försök hade behövt göras för att säkerställa ett pålitligt resultat och det finns därmed stor potential att bygga vidare på experimenten som gjorts.