Dusky kob Argyrosomus japonicus is a wide-ranging estuarine-dependent Sciaenid and an important fishery species throughout most of its distribution. It is one of South Africa’s most valuable coastal fishery species. High levels of juvenile exploitation in estuaries and ineffective management regulations have led to stock collapse, highlighting the need to better understand the spatial and temporal aspects of estuarine-dependency and multiple habitat use. Habitat connectivity is a critical property of estuarine-associated fishes and it therefore follows that knowledge of this link is fundamental in understanding population dynamics and the nursery role of estuarine and/or marine habitats. While dusky kob occur in both estuaries and nearshore coastal zones, limited information on connectivity among these habitats exists. The aim of this study is to assess the role of estuarine nursery habitats in the life cycle of the dusky kob by examining multiple habitat connectivity and determining the drivers associated with estuarine use. A total of 96 dusky kob (237–1280 mm total length) were tagged with acoustic transmitters in both the estuarine and marine environments of Algoa Bay, Eastern Cape, South Africa between May 2008 and September 2010. Their movements were monitored using a network of automated data-logging acoustic receivers deployed in the Sundays Estuary, seven neighbouring estuarine habitats, two commercial harbours and various sites within Algoa Bay. And more...

Thesis (MscAgric (Animal Sciences))--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / The development of basic husbandry techniques and determining basic performance parameters are among the first steps towards culturing a new species. Silver kob, Argyrosomus inodorus, is a large Sciaenid and endemic to South Africa and Namibia and has been selected as a candidate aquaculture species. However, the proposed culture raises many questions, with two of them being the adaptability to captive conditions and product quality in the captive raised fish. To address these, trials were set up with eighty-three silver kob, divided into three ponds and fed three different diets. The effects of the diet on performance and quality were determined over a nine month trial period. The fish fed the pilchard diet adapted faster to the captive conditions than the fish fed the artificial diets. The growth of these fish were also markedly better than that of the fish fed the artificial diets, although after the adaptation period, the growth rate of the fish fed the artificial diets surpassed that of the fish fed the pilchards. Fifteen fish, five from each treatment were sacrificed and compared on a chemical and sensory level to wild-caught fish (control, n=6). Differences (p≤0.05) were noted in the total lipid content and fatty acid composition between the fish fed the different diets and the control. Sensory analysis revealed that the fish fed pilchards differed (p≤0.05) from the other groups by having an undesirable odour and flavour. The body partitioning and the proximate chemical composition of silver kob were determined. The length-weight relationship for silver kob raised in captivity was determined and a b-value of 3.32 was obtained, which indicates allometric growth with the fish becoming more rotund as their length increases. The results of these trials indicates that silver kob, A. inodorus adapts in captive conditions. The final product also compares favourably to wild-caught fish. The use of digital image analysis as a method of determining fish condition was also assessed with promising results for future application in research and production systems.

The dusky kob, Argyrosomus japonicus, is a popular South African “line fish” whose stocks have dwindled to dangerously low levels of between 1% and 4.5% of pristine spawner biomass per recruit. A. japonicus stocks are currently managed by means of minimum size restrictions and daily bag limits, and as a result of the inability of these measures to facilitate the recovery of the species over a realistic time frame, the need for an alternative management plan has become apparent. Given the status of the stock and management regime, stock enhancement appears to be an appropriate option to be investigated. This study evaluates the feasibility of stock enhancement as a possible management tool to assist with the recovery of this important South African linefish species. By evaluating the genetic and ecological implications related to stock enhancement, identifying a suitable tagging method for post-release monitoring, and evaluating the economic feasibility of such a programme, any fatal flaws would become immediately apparent. This coupled with the required framework for the development of a management plan for stock enhancement of A. japonicus provides direction further research and actions required in order to utilise stock enhancement as a management tool. Due to the nature of stock enhancement, there are several ecological and genetic issues that arise from such a programme. These issues were reviewed and the issues that were relevant to stock enhancement of A. japonicus identified. Ecological concerns that arose included those of competition, disease and seed quality, while genetic issues were concerned mainly in the possible loss of genetic variability and consequent reduction in fitness of the stock. Fortunately the technology exists to evaluate the effects and likelihood of these problems occurring as well as to minimise the likelihood of them occurring. By taking a scientific approach to stock enhancement, hatchery management, and release strategies can be manipulated in such a way as to minimise any negative effects that may be caused. Both ecological and genetic effects of stocking indicate a need for post-release monitoring of stock enhancement programmes. Stock enhancement requires a post-release monitoring programme, which in turn relies on an ability to distinguish between hatchery reared and wild fish. A study was conducted to evaluate the suitability of coded wire tags (CWT), visual implant fluorescent elastomers (VIFE), and oxytetracycline (OTC) as a means of distinguishing between hatchery reared and wild A. japonicus, for the purpose of a post-release monitoring programme. OTC appeared to be the most suitable as it produced 100% retention over a five month period compared to 62% and 61% for VIFE and CWT respectively. OTC is therefore suggested as a tagging method for the purpose of post-release monitoring of the stock enhancement of A. japonicus. To evaluate a possible funding option for stock enhancement of A. japonicus in South Africa, a willingness-to-pay survey, based on a “user pays” approach using recreational fishing permits as a vehicle for payment, included 102 recreational anglers in the Plettenberg Bay area. The survey showed that generally anglers were willing to pay more than the current amount for the recreational fishing permit. This promising result, coupled with the fact that there are approximately 450 000 recreational anglers leads to the belief that there is potential for a substantial increase in the funds generated for the Marine Living Resources Fund through recreational anglers. Stock enhancement should not be ruled out on the basis of economic feasibility yet as there is potential for it to be sustained by the users of the resource. An A. japonicus juvenile production costing model was created taking into account setup and running costs of a hatchery for A. japonicus, based on known parameters from existing facilities, and adjusting them to meet the requirements of a stock enhancement facility. Estimates varied according to the number and size of fish for release (values which can only be decided upon after further research), with setup estimated to be between R 10 000 000 and R 30 000 000 and annual running costs between R 2 400 000 and R 6 700 000 annually. These figures were dependant on the size and number of fish being produced, with production ranging between 100 000 and 5 000 000 fish of between 50 mm and 150 mm, and a broodstock of 150 individuals. Given the need for alternative management of A. japonicus in South Africa and the lack of evidence to suggest that it is an unfeasible option, this project has found no reason why further investigation into the use of stock enhancement for the management of A. japonicus should not proceed further provided the fishery is shown to be recruit limited. The technology and ability to overcome possible ecological and genetic problems exists, a suitable means of tagging for post-release monitoring exists, as does a realistic funding option. There is a substantial amount of research that must be done prior to stocking, for which a base framework is provided.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Aquaculture is one of the fastest growing food producing sectors in the world. Over the past few years, aquaculture research has focused on improving rearing protocols and standards for the culture of aquatic organisms. Probiotics are gaining increasing interest as an alternative to antibiotics to improve animal health and welfare. The effects of probiotics on the physiological and biochemical development of the digestive tract of commercially raised Argyrosomus japonicus (dusky kob) larvae were investigated. Two probiotic treatments were compared to a control where the standard rearing protocol was applied. The growth of the larvae and histological development of the digestive tract was studied. The specific enzyme activity of key digestive enzymes was determined. Amylase, trypsin, pepsin, alkaline phosphatase, aminopeptidase N and leucine-alanine peptidase were assayed. The mean growth of the control group of larvae differs from the CSIR and BactoSafe treatment groups (P = <0.001). There were no differences in the histological development between the control and two treatments. The histology did indicate a slight delay in development of the digestive tract when compared to previous studies on dusky kob. No significant differences were observed between the control and treatment groups for any of the enzyme assays. The effect of probiotics on the development of the digestive system of dusky kob larvae could not be definitively described as it was not determined to what extent the probiotics had established in the gut. What the study did conclude was that the enzyme assays need to be refined in order to determine the optimal reaction conditions required for the determination of specific enzyme activity in commercially raised dusky kob. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Akwakultuur is een van die vinnigste groeiende voedsel produserende sektore in die wêreld. Oor die laaste aantal jare het akwakultuur navorsing gefokus op die verbetering van grootmaak protokolle en standaarde vir die cultuur van akwatise organismes So het die belangstelling in pro-biotika, as alternatief tot antibiotika ten einde die gesondheid en welsyn van diere te verhoog, vermeerder. Die effekte van pro-biotika op die fisiologies en biochemiese ontwikkeling van die spysverteringskanaal van kommersieel geproduseer Argyrosomus japonicus larwes was ondersoek. Twee probiotiese behandelings is vergelyk met ʼn kontrole (standaard grootmaak protokol). Die groei van die larwes en die histologiese ontwikkeling van die spysverteringskanaal is ondersoek. Die spesifieke ensiem aktiwiteite van die sleutel verteringsensieme was ook bepaal. Amilase, tripsien, pepsien, alkaliese fosfatase, aminopeptidase N en leusien-alanien peptidase was ondersoek. Die gemiddelde groei van die kontrole groep was effe hoër as die van die ander twee behandelings. Daar was geen verskil in histologie van die groepe nie maar die tempo van ontwikkeling vir alle behandelinge blyk stadiger te wees as die wat in vorige studies vir A. japonicus rapporteer is. Geen betekenisvolle verskille is opgemerk tussen die kontrole en die behandelingsgroepe vir enige van die ensiem analises nie. Die invloed van die probiotika op die ontwikkeling van die spysverteringskanaal van die larwes kon nie onomwonde beskryf word nie aangesien die vestiging van die pro-biotika in die spysverteringkanaal nie omskryf is nie. Wat wel gevind was, is dat die analitiese tegnieke rakende die ensieme verfyn moet word ten einde die optimale reaksie omgewings te bepaal wat dit sal moontlik maak om spesifieke ensiemaktiwiteite in die kommersieel geproduseerde A. japonicus te bepaal.

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / Aquaculture is a vast industry all over the world and has increased significantly during the past 30 years. In South Africa, finfish aquaculture farms stretch from Gansbaai to as far as Richards bay with the potential of extending into Mozambique. The future success of this fast growing industry in South Africa strongly relies on the development of the supporting sector such as government legislation, sponsorship, participation of the pharmaceutical industry and research and development in aquatic organism health management. Diplectanum oliveri Williams, 1989, a monogenean gill parasite of both Argyrosomus japonicus (Temminck & Schlegel, 1843) (dusky kob) and A. inodorus Griffiths & Heemstra, 1995 (silver kob) is currently regarded in South Africa as the most persistent ectoparasite associated with the culture of both fish species, causing pathological tissue changes in the areas associated with attachment and feeding which can result in stock losses. The egg production of D. oliveri was used to evaluate and develop a method to quantify monogenean infections on fish, by counting the eggs produced by infra-populations of these parasites over a 24-hour period and to determine the reliability of this method as a non-invasive/non-destructive method to quantify the intensity of an individual infra-population of parasites on a single host. Currently, Diplectanum spp. on dusky kob are being controlled in local mariculture facilities using methods and drugs that are traditionally used for monogeneans (flukes) and are regarded as effective. Most of these drugs are, however, no longer approved for use in food fish and none of them has proven to be very effective in controlling D. oliveri in culture facilities, which can result in subsequent re-infections of epidemic proportion. Currently, there are no anthelmintics registered for aquaculture in South Africa. An registered anthelmintic used in terrestrial animals (sheep, goats, cattle and ostriches) containing praziquantel was tested at various concentrations and exposures against D. oliveri on A. japonicus to determine the efficacy of two different formulations and the potential for "off label" use. The 20 ppm (high) praziquantel concentration treatments eliminated all adult parasites, but caused significant measureable stress and affected the central nervous system of the fish, which resulted in death of all fish in the solution group after 18 hours. The 2 ppm (low) concentrations failed to remove all adult parasites. Although both the 2 hour (short) exposure/high concentration and 24 hour (long) exposure/low concentration of the suspension formulation were effective, but only the short exposure/high concentration eliminated all adult parasites with little change in behaviour by the treated fish.

The effect of dietary protein, protein and energy ratios, fish meal replacement by Soya bean meal and feeding frequency was investigated on the growth, feed efficiency and body composition, of juvenile dusky kob, Argyrosomus japonicus. The effect of dietary protein levels was investigated by comparing isocaloric diets containing 35, 40, 45 and 55% protein. Dietary protein inclusion level significantly affected specific growth rates, feed efficiency and body composition (in terms of fat deposition) and results show that a minimum of 45% and maximum of 52.3% dietary protein is optimal. The protein and energy requirements were investigated by comparing three protein levels (35,40 and 45%) with three lipid levels (6, 9 and 12%) in a 3x3 factorial design. A diet 45% protein and 9% lipid, with a P: E ratio of29 mglkJ and DE of 15.5 kJ/g resulted in an optimal specific growth rate (1.6± 0.2), feed efficiency (FCR= 1.7±0.44; PER= 1.36) and body composition for A. japonicus. To investigate the effect of partial fish meal replacement by Soya bean meal (SBM) in the diet, 20-50% of the protein from fish meal was substituted by protein from SBM, and were compared with a control diet containing only fish meal. No significant differences in the specific growth rates, feed efficiencies and the body composition were recorded for the fish fed the control diet and for fish fed the 20 and 30% SBM treatments. Results show that up to 30% of the protein from fish meal can be replaced with protein from SBM in the diet of this species. The effect of feeding frequency and gut evacuation time was investigated by comparing four feeding frequencies. Fish were fed to satiation either once, twice, three or four times a day. Feed intake was significantly affected by feeding frequency and fish fed 2, 3 and 4 meals a day ate significantly more food (p< 0.05) than the fish fed one meal a day. No significant differences (p> 0.05) in the specific growth rates, feed efficiencies and body composition were recorded for fish fed 2, 3 and 4 times a day. Feed intake was used to calculate an optimal daily ration and feeding two meals a day resulted in an optimal daily ration of 4% BW/day. A gut evacuation time of 7.25 hours indicates that fish fed twice a day probably had sufficient time to digest their food and evacuate their guts, resulting in the same daily feed intake as fish given 3 and 4 meals a day. Results conclude that under the present experimental conditions, a minimum daily ration of 4% BW/day, fed twice a day (in the morning and evening) is required for optimal growth (SGR= 1.33± 0.1), feed efficiency (FCR= 1.96± 0.4; PER= 1.44± 0.2) and body composition in juvenile dusky kob.

The lack of locally manufactured marine finfish diets motivated the current project, which aimed to develop a practical diet specifically formulated for dusky kob. The first growth trial investigated the effect of pellet texture (i.e. hard versus soft pellets) and the inclusion of an additional binder, test treatments were compared to two reference diets. There was no significant difference in weight gain between fish fed the hard or soft pellets (p=0.17), over nine weeks. The fish fed the local trout feed weighed significantly less than those fed the test diets (p=0.003). There was no significant difference in leaching rate amongst treatments (p=0.45). A hard pelleted diet without gelatin is recommended in the commercial culture of dusky kob. Pellets with different physical shapes were tested to determine the effect of shape on settling speeds. A square shaped pellet had a slower sinking rate compared to a round shaped pellet (p<0.0001). Juvenile dusky kob, held in cages, fed the square pellets grew significantly faster than the fish fed the round pellet, with a mean weight gain of 16.81 ± 0.45 g (p=0.018). A growth trial was used to optimize the protein to energy (PE) ratio by adjusting dietary protein and lipid levels. Fish fed the diets with high levels of protein (46 % protein) achieved the better growth rates (125 % weight gain) compared to the lower protein diets (92 % weight gain) (p<0.0001). There was no significant difference in total ammonia production (TAN) level for the 46 and 42 % protein diets (p=0.68). The overall performance of the prototype diet was investigated in a closed recirculating system. Growth and FCR of the fish fed the prototype diet was on a par to those fed the commercially available diet currently used in the local farming industry. There was no significant difference in the blood chemistry for fish held at increased stocking densities. The prototype diet is suitable for use in recirculating systems, as there were no negative effects on water quality parameters. This study has laid a foundation for the manufacture of a practical commercial dusky kob diet in South Africa.

La corvina es una especie carnívora que se ha incorporado a la producción de la acuicultura en el Mar Mediterráneo, por sus altos índices de crecimiento y calidad de la carne. Por la poca información nutricional existente para esta especie, se ha introducido en su producción la experiencia que ya se tiene en la dorada y la lubina. Los objetivos de esta tesis doctoral fue determinar las necesidades nutritivas de la corvina y estudiar la inclusión del turtó de soja como una fuente proteica vegetal alternativa de la harina de pescado. Para determinar las necesidades de proteína y energía se trabajó con un pienso comercial, se experimentó con dos grupos de peces (53 y 200 g), en donde se aplicó un modelo factorial, obteniendo que las necesidades de mantenimiento para la proteína fue de 0,0617 g PD 100 g pez-1 día-1 y para la energía de 2.74 kJ ED 100 g pez-1 día-1. Las necesidades para el máximo crecimiento de la proteína fue de 0,64 g PD 100 g pez-1 día-1 y de energía 38.5 kJ ED 100 g pez-1 día-1. Con peces de 52 g, se realizó el estudio del efecto de los niveles de la proteína digestible (35%, 43%, 49% y 53%), los peces alimentados con piensos con niveles de 43%, 49% y 53% de proteína digestible, obtuvieron los mejores crecimientos (Coeficiente térmico de crecimiento = 2,47, 2,57 y 2.69 x 10-3, respectivamente). El nivel óptimo de proteína digestible ingerida para juveniles de corvina fue de 0,8 g PD 100 g pez-1 día-1. Para determinar la relación Proteína/Energía se experimentaron con peces de 147 g en jaulas marinas y fueron alimentados con piensos de 47/20, 51/28 y 55/17, obteniendo los mejores crecimientos e índices de conversión con el pienso 47/20. Para estudiar la inclusión del turtó de soja en la corvina se realizaron dos fases de investigación. En una primera fase se utilizaron 800 peces de 165 g, durante 107 días fueron alimentados con cuatro piensos isoproteíco (50% de proteína bruta) e isolípidico (17% de grasa bruta), con niveles de inclusión del 0, 15, 30 y 45% de turtó de soja. En los piensos del 15 y 30% de turtó de soja se obtuvieron los mejores resultados y de acuerdo a la regresión cuadrática el nivel óptimo de inclusión de turtó de soja fue del 27.6%. La relación entre el porcentaje de aminoácidos esenciales de la dieta y el porcentaje de aminoácidos esenciales a nivel corporal de los peces presentó deficiencias en arginina, lisina, treonina y principalmente de metionina. En la segunda fase se utilizó la misma metodología que en el primer experimento, pero utilizando 300 peces de 346 g de media durante 26 días. Los resultados muestran que la corvina presentó un alto crecimiento (Coeficiente térmico de crecimiento = 4,00 x 10-3) y se recomienda una inclusión de turtó de soja de entre un 30 ¿ 45%. En base a los resultados obtenidos, se propone un pienso para Argyrosomus regius de 47% de proteína bruta, 17% de grasa bruta y un 30% de inclusión de turtó de soja, suplementado con metionina y lisina, con el fin de obtener altos crecimientos, disminuir el uso de la harina de pescado y hacer más rentable la producción acuícola de esta especie en el Mar Mediterráneo / Velazco Vargas, JL. (2014). Contribución al estudio de las necesidades nutritivas de la corvina (Argyrosomus regius, Asso 1801) [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/35446 / TESIS

Fisheries management regulations for dusky kob Argyrosomus japonicus, an important commercial and recreational fisheries species, have failed and the stock is considered collapsed. It is important to take an ecosystems approach to management which includes understanding the effect of environmental factors on recruitment, abundance and distribution. The distribution of early juveniles (20-150 mm TL) in the wild appears to be restricted to the upper reaches of estuaries at salinities below 5 psu. Food availability could not explain the distribution of early juveniles. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of salinity on the distribution of early juvenile dusky kob (<150 mm TL) by examining physiological responses of juveniles exposed to a range of salinities under laboratory conditions. The hypothesis was that the physiological functioning of early juveniles would be optimised at the reduced salinities which they naturally occur at. The objectives of this study were to investigate the effect of salinity on: i) plasma osmolality; ii) growth, food conversion ratio and condition factor; and iii) gill histology with emphasis on chloride cell size and number. A preliminary study was undertaken to determine whether the use of 2-phenoxyethanol had an effect on plasma osmolality. Juveniles pithed prior to blood sampling were used as the control. Plasma osmolality was not affected by exposure or duration of exposure (2, 4, 6, 8, 10 min) to 2-phenoxyethanol. The ability of teleosts to regulate plasma osmolality over a wide range of salinities indicates their degree of ‘physiological euryhalinity’. Plasma osmolality of juveniles exposed to 5, 12 and 35 psu was measured every two weeks over a total of six weeks. Although juveniles were able to regulate plasma osmolality over the duration of the experiment, plasma osmolality at 5 and 12 psu was significantly lower than in fish maintained at 35 psu. Growth is used as an indicator of the relative energy used for osmoregulation at different salinities, as the energy used for osmoregulation becomes unavailable for growth. A nineweek growth experiment was conducted on juveniles exposed to 5, 12 and 35 psu. Juveniles grew and survived at all three salinities. However, growth of juveniles at 5 psu was significantly lower than at 12 and 35 psu. Other than a significantly greater weight gain at 35 psu relative to 12 psu, there was no significant difference in specific growth and length gain between juveniles at 12 and 35 psu. Food conversion ratio and condition factor at 12 and 35 psu were not significantly different, but food conversion ratio and condition factor at 5 psu was significantly greater and lower than at 35 psu respectively. In fish, gills are considered the major organ involved in osmoregulation. Within the gills, chloride cells are the predominant site of ion exchange which is driven by the Na⁺, K⁺- ATPase enzyme. Gill samples of juveniles exposed to 5, 12 and 35 psu for six weeks were examined histologically using light microscopy. Chloride cells of juveniles maintained at 5 psu were significantly more abundant than in juveniles at 12 and 35 psu. Chloride cells of juveniles at 5 psu were significantly larger than in juveniles kept at 12 psu, but not significantly different to those of juveniles kept at 35 psu. The ability of the juvenile fish to regulate plasma osmolality indicates that they are 'physiologically euryhaline', but the reduced growth and proliferation of chloride cells at 5 psu suggests that energy expenditure for osmoregulation is increased at hypoosmotic salinities. Salinity induced physiological responses could therefore not explain the natural distribution of early juvenile dusky kob and it is proposed that other environmental factors (e.g. temperature) are also important. It is also hypothesised that the high conductivity of an estuary in South Africa, to which our understanding is limited, may negate the effect of reduced salinity. Although freshwater input into estuaries is an important factor, further investigations to explain the distribution and abundance of early juveniles is required to make management recommendations. Dusky kob is also becoming an increasingly popular aquaculture species in South Africa. In this regard, early juvenile dusky kob can be grown at salinities as low as 12 psu without negatively affecting growth and production.

The South African mariculture industry is developing the rearing technology of indigenous fish species. Dusky kob (Argyrosomus japonicus) has high-quality flesh and a good market demand. Research is needed to determine the environmental requirements under which growth of dusky kob is optimised. This study assessed the effect of temperature, light intensity, feeding frequency and stocking density, respectively, on growth, feed conversion ratio (FCR) and survival of juvenile dusky kob within a weight range of 10-60 g fish⁻¹) in a series of four growth trials. The effect of temperature on growth and FCR was assessed at 14 temperatures from 17 to 28°C. The temperature for best growth was estimated to be 25.3 °C, while 21.4 °C was the temperature at which the best FCR was achieved. A growth trial testing the effect of light intensity on growth showed that light intensity did not affect growth in the range of 23 – 315 lx. Fish fed a restricted ration of 3.6% body weight per day (chapter 2) or 3.41% body weight per day (chapter 4) had a better FCR than fish fed to satiation. A trial to assess the effect of feeding frequency on growth and FCR showed that fish fed both two or three times daily grew better than those fed once daily. FCR was best in fish that were fed once or twice daily. Preliminary analysis of the results from a stocking density trial showed that stocking density in the range of 10 – 50 kg m⁻³ did not affect growth of juvenile dusky kob. It is recommended to culture dusky kob at a temperature of 25.3 - 21.4 °C at stocking densities up 50 kg m⁻³ to maximise growth. However, a study is needed to determine the environmental conditions needed to maximise profit under commercial conditions. The results allow the South African industry the opportunity to assess the culture potential of this species. In addition, the results will help develop protocols that can be used in other South African candidate aquaculture species such as silver kob, yellowtail, white-stumpnose and sole.