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Σκοπός της παρούσας εργασίας είναι η μελέτη της συμπεριφοράς των καθοδικών αλεξικέραυνων στις γραμμές μεταφοράς ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας όταν καταπονούνται από κεραυνούς. Είναι γνωστό πως οι πειραματικές μετρήσεις που μπορούν να γίνουν για την διάγνωση της συμπεριφοράς των αλεξικέραυνων είναι επίπονες, λόγω της ίδιας της φύσης του κεραυνού, και βεβαίως δαπανηρές. Οπότε γεννάται η ανάγκη δημιουργίας κάποιων μοντέλων που προσεγγίζουν όσο πιο ρεαλιστικά γίνεται τις πραγματικές συνθήκες καταπόνησης των αλεξικέραυνων. / The purpose of this paper is to study the behavior of metal oxide surge arresters on power lines when they are strained by lightning. It is known that experimental measurements, which can be performed to diagnose the behavior of surge arresters are difficult, because of the very nature of lightning, and certainly costly. Thus rises the need for some models, which represent as much as possible realistically the real stress condition of surge arresters.

Orientador: Maria Cristina Dias Tavares / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Eletrica e de Computação / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-10T09:40:09Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 MestasValero_Patricia_M.pdf: 3064250 bytes, checksum: 898053aa51c68fc5e5e170f255fa1d05 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007 / Resumo: As sobretensões em um sistema de transmissão não podem ser evitadas assim como a sua total supressão é extremamente difícil, entretanto, suas amplitudes podem ser reduzidas. Tradicionalmente, as sobretensões transitórias advindas das manobras de energização e religamento de linhas de transmissão são limitadas utilizando o ¿método convencional¿ como é o caso do uso de resistores de pré-inserção, este apesar de ser um método efetivo, apresenta uma aceitação de sua tecnologia tendente a diminuir devido ao alto custo de implementação e manutenção. Nos últimos tempos as principais empresas de transmissão do mundo têm se mostrado mais favoráveis a utilização de pára-raios e chaveamento controlado de disjuntores para o controle de sobretensões, mas na prática esta aplicação está apenas sendo iniciada. O presente trabalho foi realizado com o objetivo de analisar os diferentes métodos para o controle de sobretensões associadas às manobras de energização e religamento trifásico de linhas de transmissão em vazio determinando assim as melhores condições técnicas para a otimização destes processos. Apresentam-se os resultados obtidos através de simulações com o programa PSCAD/EMTDC de um caso específico com dados reais dos geradores, transformadores, características dos trechos de linhas de transmissão, pára-raios e reatores de compensação em derivação tendo como base um sistema de 500 kV / Abstract: The switching transient in transmission system cannot be prevented as well as its total suppression is extremely difficult, however, its magnitudes have to be limited. For long transmission lines, traditionally the switching transient overvoltages due to energization and reclosure are limited by the ¿conventional method¿ as is the case of preinsertion resistors in the line circuit breakers. Although this is an effective mitigation method it presents a decreasing acceptance due to the high cost of implementation and maintenance. Recently, important transmission firms in the world have shown the trend to the use of surge arresters and controlled switching breakers, in practical this application is only being initiated. The present work was realized with the objective of analyzing the different methods for the overvoltages control associates to energization and three-phase reclosing maneuvers of transmission lines to determine the best technique for the optimization of these processes. The results was obtained through digital simulations with PSCAD/EMTDC software for an specific case with real dates for generators, transformer, transmission lines, surge arresters and shunt compensation reactors of a 500 kV system / Mestrado / Energia Eletrica / Mestre em Engenharia Elétrica

Orientador: José Pissolato Filho / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Elétrica e de Computação / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-24T06:21:09Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Abreu_SandersonRochade_M.pdf: 5297087 bytes, checksum: ef0820d93a3ed019ef6405a29a95a6c0 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / Resumo: Os sistemas elétricos estão submetidos esporadicamente a várias formas de fenômenos transitórios, envolvendo variações súbitas de tensão e de corrente provocadas por descargas atmosféricas, faltas no sistema ou operação de disjuntores e chaves seccionadoras. Desta forma, os equipamentos elétricos além de estarem permanentemente solicitados pela tensão de operação dos sistemas, serão eventualmente submetidos por solicitações de tensões temporárias e transitórias, provenientes da ocorrência de distúrbios nos sistemas. A utilização de para-raios em sistemas de distribuição é uma prática que as empresas distribuidoras de energia elétrica vêm utilizando ao longo dos anos, para limitar as amplitudes das sobretensões transitórias de origem atmosférica nos sistemas de distribuição, reduzindo os efeitos dessas sobretensões sobre os equipamentos a níveis aceitáveis, de modo a aumentar a confiabilidade do sistema. Para isso, é imprescindível que os para-raios estejam operacionais ao longo de toda a sua vida útil e que resistam às diversas solicitações de tensões temporárias e transitórias sob diferentes condições ambientais. Este trabalho, pretende avaliar o comportamento dos diferentes projetos construtivos de para-raios de distribuição disponíveis no mercado nacional e internacional, mediante a avaliação sob condições de temperatura, umidade e precipitação pluviométrica, por meio de envelhecimento acelerado. Pretende fornecer subsídios que possam nortear escolhas importantes a serem tomadas pelas concessionárias de distribuição de energia elétrica do Grupo Energisa, como por exemplo, a seleção do equipamento adequado às condições climáticas de cada região atendida. A análise da hidrofobicidade dos polímeros utilizados na construção do para-raios tem um papel importante neste trabalho, pois poderá indicar a possível degradação do invólucro de acordo com as condições ambientais que este está exposto por região do Brasil, onde o Grupo Energisa tem atuação / Abstract: The eletrical systems are sporadically submitted to several forms of transient phenomena involving sudden changes in voltage and current caused by atmospheric surges, system faults or operating circuit breakers and switchgear. Thus, electrical equipment in addition to being permanently operating voltage required by the systems, are eventually submitted to requests for temporary and transient voltages, from the ocurrence of systems disturbances. The use of surge arresters in distribution systems is a practice that the electricity distribution companies have used over the years to limit the amplitudes of transient overvoltages of atmospheric origin in distribution systems and reducing the effects of these overvoltages on equipment at acceptable levels in order to increase system reliability. Therefore, it is necessry that surge arresters are operational throughout its life and resistant to several requests of temporary and transient voltages under different environmental conditions. This work intends to evaluate the behavior of different constructive projects of surge arresters distribution available on the national and international markets, through their evaluation under conditions of temperature, humidity and rainfall, through accelerated aging. Also intends to provide subsidies to orient important choices to be made by electricity distribution companies from Energisa Group, for example, the selection of appropriate climatic conditions equipment of each region served. For this, the analysis of the hydrophobicity of the polymers used in the construction of surge arresters, plays an important role in this work , as it may indicate the possible deterioration of the housing according to the environmental conditions that are exposed by the region of Brazil, where the Group Energisa has operations / Mestrado / Energia Eletrica / Mestre em Engenharia Elétrica

Σκοπός της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι η μελέτη της λειτουργίας των καθοδικών αλεξικεραύνων κατά την προστασία γραμμών μεταφοράς υψηλής τάσης. Ειδικότερα, λόγω της ιδιαίτερης φύσης των κεραυνών και των πληγμάτων που αυτοί επιφέρουν, γίνεται μελέτη μοντέλων που έχουν προταθεί για την προσομείωση των αλεξικεραύνων κατά την λειτουργία τους. / The purpose of this paper is to study the function of surge arresters protecting high voltage transmission lines. Specifically, given the particular nature of lightning strikes and the blows they bring, models that have been proposed for the simulation of surge arrestes during operation are being studied.

Eskom (Electricity Supply Commission of South Africa) is the national electrical utility that provides the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity in South Africa. The majority of Eskom's electricity distribution is done with either 11 kV or 22kV electrical overhead networks. An unacceptable number of Eskom's pole mounted power transformers on these networks have been failing over the past six years in the Kwa-Zulu Natal region. The average transformer failure rate for the Distribution Eastern Region was calculated to be 2.4% per annum. International norms seem to indicate a transformer failure rate of between 0.5% and 1.0% per annum as acceptable. The estimated cost of these transformer failures was between R9 million and R13 million per annum for the Eastern Region. Eskom Distribution has seven regions and the total cost of these failures was considerable to the business. These transformer failures contributed an average of 5.3% per month of the Supply Loss Index (SLI) for the Eastern Region, with a maximum contribution of 14.5% per month of the SLI for the region. The SLI is an Eskom performance measure of the unavailability of supply of the networks. The Eskom plant performance database (NAPI) was statistically analysed in detail and a number of field investigations conducted at transformer installations that had failed in the past. Transformer earth electrode resistance measurements were taken in an attempt to identify the cause of these transformer failures. Local transformer manufacturers were consulted and a national transformer refurbishment company's database was analysed during the investigation as part of a holistic approach to the industry related dissertation. The main finding of the NAPI data analysis was that the majority of the transformers failed during lightning storm periods. Another similar Eskom investigation had a sample of failed transformers opened for internal inspection. Signs of lightning damage to either the primary side winding or the primary lead were found. The proposed failure hypothesis was that the transformers required additional lightning protection of the primary side to protect the transformer against lightning. It seemed that the current specification of the Eskom distribution class surge arresters was inadequate to offer sufficient lightning protection of the pole mounted transformers. Practical measures were implemented on existing Eskom 11 kV networks in the Glencoe area as part of an Eskom research project to reduce the high failure rates of transformers. Two experimental networks were established and one control network was used as a reference line. The project implementation was completed at the end of October 1999. The experimental project looked at applying additional primary side lightning protection of the transformers. The main emphasis of the lightning protection on the first network was the use of two distribution class arresters in parallel (double arrester configuration) for each transformer and an understrung conductor connected to the prior structure back from the transformer installation. The second network had the standard single arresters installed on the transformers. A 600mm wood path was placed in series with an earthed down conductor installed on each intermediate woodpole structure to ensure a basic insulation level of 300kV for the network. The control network also had single arresters installed and was a fully insulated network (no earthed down conductor on the woodpoles). Each network was carefully monitored in terms of equipment failures and the performance levels of each network was measured with installed voltage dip recorders near the individual network circuit breakers. The Eskom Lightning Position and Tracking System (LPATS) data was collected and analysed to quantify the lightning activity before the project implementation to that of after project implementation. For the period November 1999 to March 2002 not a single transformer or surge arrester had failed ,due to lightning on the double arrester and understrung conductor configuration experimental network. There were recorded transformer and surge arrester failures on the second experimental network and on the control network. It was found that the practical methods implemented on the networks did not have a negative impact on the performance levels of the networks. Laboratory work was conducted in the high voltage laboratory at the University of Natal, on various metal oxide varistor (MOV) blocks of opened up new and failed surge arresters. This was to determine the effect of MOV blocks in parallel under power frequency and current impulse conditions. In particular, to determine what the effect of parallel MOV blocks with different voltage-current (V-I) characteristics would have on the current sharing and energy absorption capabilities of the individual blocks. The work was performed to simulate the behaviour of two surge arresters in parallel as in the experimental project. The experimental project lines were modeled using the Alternative Transients Program (ATP) simulation package and various parametric studies performed in the single phase conductor simulations. Each network component (such as the line, transformer and surge arrester) and phenomena (such as the effect of corona, the transient earth electrode resistance and voltage flashover) were modeled. The effect of surge arresters in parallel and the use of an understrung conductor arrangement were quantified. A current sharing factor (k-factor) was introduced to quantify the sharing of currents through surge arresters in parallel with different V-I curves. The main finding from the impulse laboratory work was that current sharing between parallel MOV blocks became better at higher currents. This finding was supported by other research work findings, particularly in the field of nuclear fusion research with parallel arresters. The results of the ATP simulations showed that the experimental network with the parallel arresters and understrung conductor arrangement considerably reduced the energy absorbed by the individual arresters. The effect of the double arrester configuration was to reduce the energy absorbed by the individual arresters even with arresters with different V-I characteristics and different manufacturers. The understrung conductor arrangement was found to be the major contributor towards the reduction of the energy absorbed by the arresters. The equivalent circuit of a MOV block for transient studies was proposed and then simulated in ATP. The simulated results were compared to the measured waveforms obtained from the impulse laboratory work. A good agreement between the simulated and measured waveforms was obtained. For existing Eskom networks with high arrester and transformer failure rates, the double arrester (distribution class) configuration would be the most time and cost effective solution. The alternative of using a single station class arrester is not proposed due to the costs involved and the availability of stock. The understrung conductor arrangement did significantly reduce the energy absorbed by the arresters but due to high labour costs and time requirements this would not be recommended for existing networks. It is suggested that Eskom investigate this practical method for new lines to be built in high lightning areas. Even with arresters from different manufacturers, the use of the double arrester configuration would decrease the energy absorbed and hence reduce the risk of failure of the individual arresters protecting the transformer. This means that Eskom field staff can use different manufacturer arresters in parallel. This would be especially for times when replacing failed arresters or a faulty transformer under breakdown conditions and electrical supply has to be restored to the customer as soon as possible. It was proposed to perform arrester matching by ensuring that the both arresters were from the same manufacturer. / Thesis (M.Sc.Eng)-University of Natal, Durban, 2002.

Το θέμα της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι η αντικεραυνική προστασία όσον αφορά τα κυκλώματα γραμμής των ηλεκτρικών σιδηροδρομικών συστημάτων. Προτού όμως αναφερθούν τρόποι και συσκευές προστασίας ή δoθούν κάποια παραδείγματα εφαρμογών στις σιδηροδρομικές γραμμές κάποιων χωρών, πρέπει να γίνει μια εισαγωγική αναφορά γύρω από τον πυρήνα αυτής της εργασίας: τον κεραυνό. Έτσι, στο 1 κεφάλαιο γίνεται περιγραφή κάποιων εισαγωγικών εννοιών σχετικά με τον κεραυνό. Ξεκινώντας από τη φόρτιση των σύννεφων και στο πως αυτή γίνεται, καταλήγουμε στα διάφορα είδη κεραυνών. Ακολουθεί η εξομοίωση στο εργαστήριο με ορισμένα μεγάλα διάκενα εκκένωσης για την εξαγωγή κάποιων συμπερασμάτων της εκκένωσης του κεραυνού. Στη συνέχεια αναλύεται ο μηχανισμός των ατμοσφαιρικών εκκενώσεων μέσα από τρεις φάσεις: έναρξη οχετού (οχετός προεκκένωσης), φάση του οχετού επιστροφής και ο συνδετικός οχετός. Τέλος γίνεται ανάλυση του ρεύματος κεραυνού και των παραμέτρων του, ενώ δίνονται και κάποιες σχέσεις για τη συχνότητα εμφάνισης των κεραυνών. Στο 2 κεφάλαιο γίνεται ανάλυση των συνδέσεων ασφαλειών (fuse link), μιας εφαρμογής που χρησιμοποιείται για την αντικεραυνική προστασία των κυκλωμάτων γραμμής. Αρχικά γίνεται περιγραφή των ειδικών παραμέτρων του συστήματος της συγκεκριμένης εφαρμογής που χρησιμοποιείται στα κινητήρια συστήματα. Στη συνέχεια δίνεται μια σύντομη επισκόπηση του πλήρους σχεδίου. Ακολούθως περιγράφονται οι προσομοιώσεις υπολογιστών, στις οποίες καθορίστηκε η κατανομή του ρεύματος κεραυνού σ’ ένα κινητήριο σύστημα. Στην παράγραφο 2.1.3.δ, εξηγείται η εργαστηριακή δοκιμή της συσκευής περιορισμού της τάσης, ειδικά της συμπεριφοράς (με τη χαρακτηριστική) του ρεύματος κεραυνού. Επιπλέον, γίνεται περιγραφή της πρακτικής εφαρμογής των ασφαλειών που είναι ανθεκτικές σε κεραυνούς, παρουσιάζοντας μια πρακτική δοκιμή. Δίνονται επίσης ορισμένες τυποποιημένες εφαρμογές. Τέλος, εξηγείται το σχέδιο των συνδέσεων των ασφαλειών που είναι ανθεκτικές σε κεραυνούς. Στο 3 κεφάλαιο αναλύονται τα αλεξικέραυνα μεταλλικών οξειδίων (ΜΟ). Τα συστήματα ισχύος των ηλεκτρικών σιδηρόδρομων μπορούν να προστατευτούν έναντι υπερτάσεων με τη χρήση αυτών των συσκευών. Στο κεφάλαιο περιγράφεται η αρχή λειτουργίας των αλεξικέραυνων ΜΟ, η οποία βασίζεται στη μη γραμμική χαρακτηριστική τάσης - ρεύματος συγκεκριμένων κεραμικών στοιχείων, αποκαλούμενα MO varistors. Ακολουθούν οι τρεις τύποι αλεξικέραυνων υπέρτασης ΜΟ για τα ηλεκτρικά συστήματα σιδηρόδρομων: με περίβλημα πορσελάνης, με συνθετικό πολυμερές περίβλημα και με άμεσα διαμορφωμένο πολυμερές περίβλημα. Τέλος, γίνεται λόγος για τη χρήση των αλεξικέραυνων ΜΟ στα DC κινητήρια συστήματα σύμφωνα με την Ένωση των Γερμανικών Επιχειρήσεων Μεταφορών (VDV), σε διάφορες σιδηροδρομικές εφαρμογές. Στο 4 κεφάλαιο γίνεται ανάλυση ενός πλάνου αντικεραυνικής προστασίας για τα συνεχούς ρεύματος (DC) σιδηροδρομικά συστήματα. Αρχικά, γίνεται μια αναφορά στις τάσεις του συστήματος και τις διάφορες μορφές υπερτάσεων, των άμεσων και έμμεσων πληγμάτων κεραυνού. Στη συνέχεια περιγράφονται κάποιες συσκευές προστασίας (καθώς και τα χαρακτηριστικά αυτών), όπως είναι τα αλεξικέραυνα υπερτάσεων ΜΟ (τύπου Α1 και Α2), οι περιοριστές χαμηλής τάσης (LVL), ενώ εισάγεται ένας προσφάτως ανεπτυγμένος υβριδικός περιοριστής τάσης (HVL) ο οποίος συνδυάζει την προστασία από υπερτάσεις και την προστασία έναντι των επικίνδυνων τάσεων επαφής. Τέλος, γίνεται μία περιγραφή διαφόρων μέτρων προστασίας στις γραμμές μεταφοράς, στους υποσταθμούς καθώς επίσης και στα οχήματα κίνησης, ενώ δίνονται και κάποια αποτελέσματα δοκιμών με χρήση LVLs. Το 5 κεφάλαιο αναλύει την πρόβλεψη των σφοδρών εκκενώσεων κεραυνού που μπορούν να προκαλέσουν μια σοβαρή διαταραχή στη λειτουργία της αμαξοστοιχίας, με τη χρησιμοποίηση υπολογιστών βασισμένων στο Ιαπωνικό Δίκτυο Ανίχνευσης Κεραυνού (Japanese Lightning Detection Network - JLDN), προκειμένου να υποστηρίξουν πομπούς για να κάνουν μια αποτελεσματική λήψη απόφασης σχετικά με τη ρύθμιση των μηχανικών συντήρησης, τις γεννήτριες ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας έκτακτης ανάγκης και τις επιπλέον ηλεκτρικές συσκευές για γρήγορη ανάκτηση. Ένα πραγματικού χρόνου σύστημα υποστήριξης λήψης απόφασης έχει αναπτυχθεί. Τέλος, γίνεται αναφορά στις δύο κύριες τεχνικές εκτίμησης, που εχουν αποτιμηθεί με την εφαρμογή τους σε πραγματικά δεδομένα κεραυνού, οι οποίες χρησιμοποιούνται για την εκτίμηση της τροχιάς της περιοχής που κινείται επικίνδυνα και της διάρκειας της δραστηριότητας του κεραυνού. Στο 6 κεφάλαιο περιγράφονται οι λεπτομέρειες του αισθητήρα υπερτάσεων/υπερρευμάτων κεραυνού για το σιδηρόδρομο. Πρόκειται για ένα νέο σύστημα ελέγχου του σιδηροδρομικού σήματος, το οποίο ελέγχει σιδηροδρομικά σήματα, διακόπτες, κυκλώματα γραμμής βασισμένα στο πρωτόκολλο IP. Σε αυτό το σύστημα, πολλές ηλεκτρονικές συσκευές εγκαθίστανται κατά μήκος του σκληρού περιβάλλοντος του σιδηροδρόμου. Επομένως, αυτές οι ηλεκτρονικές συσκευές πρέπει να έχουν αντοχή προς το περιβάλλον για υπέρταση/υπέρρευμα κεραυνού, για θερμοκρασία, για δόνηση, για βροχή και για ηλεκτρομαγνητικό θόρυβο. Σαν αντίμετρο για την υπέρταση κεραυνού, χρησιμοποιούμε την προστατευτική συσκευή (το αλεξικέραυνο). Η υποβάθμιση της προστατευτικής συσκευής μπορεί να προκαλέσει την καταστροφή των ηλεκτρικών συσκευών. Έτσι αναπτύχθηκε ο αισθητήρας υπερτάσεων/υπερρευμάτων για την ανίχνευση της υποβάθμισης της προστατευτικής συσκευής. Στο 7 κεφάλαιο περιγράφονται οι μετρήσεις των υπερτάσεων και των μεταβατικών ρευμάτων κεραυνού που εισέρχονται σε μια εγκατάσταση σιδηροδρόμου κατά τη διάρκεια του καλοκαιριού του 2003 στο Tierp της Σουηδίας. Οι μετρήσεις υπερτάσεων έγιναν σε μια τεχνητή βάση που παρέχει έναν αδιάκοπο εφοσδιασμό για τα τηλεπικοινωνιακά συστήματα και τα συστήματα σηματοδότησης. Επίσης παρουσιάζονται και συζητούνται τα παραδείγματα των κυματομορφών των μεταβατικών ρευμάτων. Τέλος, το κεντρικό μήνυμα που περνάνε τα δύο τελευταία κεφάλαια, 8 και 9, είναι ότι πρέπει να ενισχυθούν τα αποτελεσματικά και οικονομικά αντίμετρα για την παρεμπόδιση των ζημιών κεραυνού στο σιδηροδρομικό σύστημα σηματοδότησης. Στο 8 κεφάλαιο μετρήθηκε η κατανομή του δυναμικού του κρασπέδου εδάφους όταν προκλήθηκε μια αύξηση δυναμικού της ράγας με την έγχυση ενός υπερρεύματος κεραυνού σε μια ράγα. Επιπλέον, διοχετεύθηκε ένα υπέρρευμα κεραυνού μέσα στη ράγα ή στο κράσπεδο εδάφους για να αυξηθεί το δυναμικό τους, προκειμένου να μετρηθούν οι υπερτάσεις κεραυνού σε μια ισόπεδη διάβαση έτσι ώστε να μπορέσουν να λάβουν βασικά δεδομένα για το σχεδιασμό της μόνωσης. Τέλος, αποδεικνύεται ότι ένα αποτελεσματικό αντίμετρο είναι να γειώσουμε τις συσκευές αντικεραυνικής προστασίας που συνδέονται με τους ηλεκτρονικούς ανιχνευτές τραίνων σε μια ισόπεδη διάβαση προκειμένου να κατασταλούν οι υπερτάσεις κεραυνού στην ισόπεδη διάβαση. Στο 9 κεφάλαιο μετρήθηκαν οι υπερτάσεις κεραυνού που προκλήθηκαν από την εισβολή των κυμάτων κεραυνού στο σιδηροδρομικό σύστημα ισόπεδης διάβασης, στην περίπτωση ενός πραγματικού πλήγματος κεραυνού, ώστε να μπορούν να κατανοηθούν οι υπερτάσεις αυτές ποσοτικά. Έτσι θα μπορούσαμε να διευκρινίσουμε τη συχνότητα εμφάνισης των υπερτάσεων κεραυνού στο σύστημα της ισόπεδης διάβασης στην κατάσταση του πραγματικού πλήγματος κεραυνού. / The subject of this project is the lightning protection for track circuits of electrical railway systems. But before being reported ways and protection devices or given some examples of applications for rail lines in some countries, should be an introductory reference around the core of this work: the lightning. Thus, chapter 1 contains a description of some import concepts about lightning. Starting from the charge of the clouds and how it is, we arrive at the different types of lightning. Here the simulation in the laboratory with some major gaps evacuation for some of the conclusions of the lightning discharges. Then analyze the mechanism of atmospheric discharges through three phases: entry drain, phase of the return drain and the connecting drain. Finally an analysis of lightning current and his parameters became, while some relationships are given about occurrence frequency of lightning. In the 2nd chapter an analysis of fuse link, an application used for lightning protection on track circuits, is described. First the special system parameters for this specific application, used in traction systems will be described. Then a brief overview of the complete project is given. Following computer simulations will be described, in which the lightning current distribution in a traction system was determined. In the paragraph 2.1.3.δ, the laboratory testing of the voltage limiting device, especially its lightning current behavior is explained. Moreover the practical application of the lightning resistant fuse link both in a field test and following in stand applications is described. Finally the design of this lightning resistant fuse link is explained. In the 3rd chapter Metal-Oxide (MO) surge arresters are described. Power systems of electric railways may be protected against overvoltages by using them. The operating principle of an MO surge arrester is essentially based on the strongly non-linear current-voltage characteristic of specific ceramic elements, so-called MO varistors, is described. Following the three types of (MO) surge arresters for electrical railway systems: with a Porcelain Housing, with a Polymer Composite Housing and with a Directly Moulded Polymer Housing. Finally, talk about use of MO surge arresters in DC traction systems as per Association of German Transport Undertakings (VDV), in various railway applications. In the 4th chapter an overvoltage protection concept for DC railway systems, is analyzed. First, there is a reference about system voltages and on various forms of overvoltages, of direct and indirect lightning strokes. Below, some protection devices (and their characteristics), such as the (MO) lightning surge arresters (A1 and A2 type), the Low Voltage Limiters (LVLs), while a newly developed Hybrid Voltage Limiter (HVL), which combines overvoltage protection and the protection against dangerous touch voltages, is introduced, are quoted. Finally, a description about some protection measures on overhead lines, for substations, and also on traction vehicles, while some test results using LVLs, are given. The 5th chapter investigates the prediction of severe lightning discharges that might cause a serious disturbance in train operation, by using computers based on the Japanese Lightning Detection Network (JLDN), in order to support dispatchers to make an effective decision about arranging maintenance engineers, emergency electrical power generators and extra electrical devices for quick recovery. A real-time decision support system has been developed. Two principal estimation techniques, which are used for estimating the trajectory of moving hazardous area and the lifetime of the lightning activity, have been evaluated by applying them to the real lightning data. In the 6th chapter details of the lightning surge sensor for railway are described. This is a new railway signal control system, which controls railway signals, switches, track circuits based on IP protocol. In this system, much electronic devices are installed along harsh railway environment. Therefore, these electronic devices must have environment resistance for lightning surge, temperature, vibration, waterproof, and electromagnetic noise. As a countermeasure for the lightning surge, we utilize the protective device (cable arrester). The degradation of the protective device may cause the damage of the electric devices. So we develop a lightning surge sensor to detect the degradation of a protective device. In the 7th chapter the measurements of lightning transients entering a railway facility during the summer of 2003, in Tierp, Sweden, are described. The measurements of the transients were made in a technical house that supplies an uninterrupted supply for the telecommunication systems and the signal systems. Examples of transient waveforms are presented and discussed. Finally, the major idea of chapters 8 and 9 is that it’s required to build up effective and economical countermeasures for preventing lightning damages on the railway signalling system. In the 8th chapter the wayside ground potential distribution when a rail potential rise was caused by injecting a lightning surge current into a rail, are measured. Moreover, a lightning surge current into the rail or wayside ground is injected, to raise their potential, in order to measure the lightning overvoltages on a level crossing so that we can obtain basic data for insulation design. It is shown in the paper that an effective countermeasure is to earth lightning protective devices attached to electronic train detectors for a level crossing in order to suppress the lightning overvoltages on the level crossing. In the 9th chapter the lightning overvoltages caused by invading lightning surges into the railway level crossing system in the event of real lightning stroke so that we can grasp the lightning overvoltages quantitatively, are measured. So, we could clarify the occurrence frequency of lightning overvoltages on the level crossing system in the condition of the real lightning stroke.

Orientador: José Pissolato Filho / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Elétrica e de Computação / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-20T15:35:10Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Silva_DaianaAntonioda_M.pdf: 4722111 bytes, checksum: 375d62ec89d5043ee6edb2f08c980d9d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012 / Resumo: Sistemas de energia elétrica estão constantemente sujeitos à sobretensões classificadas como internas, decorrentes de operações de manobras e chaveamento no próprio sistema; ou sobretensões decorrentes de agentes externos, por exemplo, descargas atmosféricas. Em ambas as situações, para-raios de óxido de zinco (ZnO) tem sido uma solução eficaz, tanto para os transitórios lentos e oscilatórios quanto para os transitórios rápidos e impulsivos. A utilização de para-raios de óxido de zinco com invólucro polimérico nesses casos é relativamente recente, recorrendo a meados dos anos 80. As informações sobre o desempenho elétrico desses dispositivos ao longo de anos de uso ou quando submetidos a condições críticas de operação são escassas e pouco difundidas na literatura técnica disponível. Dessa forma, uma análise criteriosa é proposta para avaliar o desempenho elétrico de para-raios com invólucro de silicone utilizados nos sistemas de distribuição de energia elétrica, em função da degradação físico-química dos mesmos. São realizados, então, 3 meses de ensaio de imersão/envelhecimento das amostras em água com cloreto de sódio à temperatura de 90 °C, visando representar 20 anos de aplicação do dispositivo em campo. A avaliação do desempenho elétrico é realizada através de medições periódicas da corrente de fuga e da tensão residual, enquanto a avaliação físico-química é obtida através da qualificação do invólucro de silicone utilizado nos para-raios por meio da classificação do grau de hidrofobicidade / Abstract: Electric power systems are constantly subjected to internal overvoltages, i.e. resulting from switching and mechanical operations in the system, or then overvoltages resulting from external causes, e.g. atmospheric surges. In both situations, metal-oxide surge arresters have been an efficacious solution for fast and impulsive electromagnetic transients as well as for slow and oscillatory transients. The use of polymeric metal oxide surge arresters, against atmospheric surges as well as for switching operations, is a relatively recent, dating back to the 1980s. However, the information on the electrical performance of these devices throughout the years of use, or when submitted to critical conditions of operation, is scarce and poorly discussed in the available technical literature. Thus, a thorough analysis is proposed to evaluate the electrical performance of surge arresters with silicone housing, commonly applied in the distribution network, as a function of their physical-chemical degradation. In order to represent 20 years of the field device, 3 months of immersion test/aging in water with sodium chloride at a temperature of 90 degrees will be performed. The evaluation will be through periodic measurements of the leakage current and residual voltage. Another objective is to describe the silicone housing used in surge arresters for classifying the degree of hydrophobicity / Mestrado / Energia Eletrica / Mestre em Engenharia Elétrica

The Eskom East Grid Traction Network (EGTN) supplying traction loads and distribution networks has experienced at least one surge arrester failure over the past ten years. These failures results in poor network reliability and customer dissatisfactions which are often overlooked. This is because reliability indices used in the reliability evaluation of transmission and distribution networks are different. It is suspected that fast transient faults in this network initiate system faults leading to surge arrester design parameter exceedances and poor network insulation coordination. Preliminary investigations in network suggest that transient studies were not done during network planning and design stages. This may have resulted in the lack of surge arrester parameter evaluations under transient conditions leading to improper surge arresters being selected and installed in this network resulting in surge arrester failures that are now evident. These failures may also have been exacerbated by the dynamic nature of traction loads as they are highly unbalanced, have poor power factors and emit high voltage distortions. Poor in-service conditions such as defects, insulation partial discharges and overheating, bolted faults in the network and quality of supply emissions can also contribute to surge arrester failures. To address problems arising with different reliability indices in these networks the reliability of the EGTN is evaluated. In this work the reliability evaluation of the EGTN is done by computing common distribution reliability indices using analytic and simulation methods. This is done by applying the analytic method in the EGTN by assessing network failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) when the surge arrester fails in this network. The simulation method is applied by applying and modifying the MATLAB code proposed by Shavuka et al. [1]. These reliability indices are then compared with transmission reliability indices over the same period. This attempts to standardize reliability evaluations in these networks. To assess the impact of transient faults in the surge arrester parameter evaluation the EGTN is modelled and simulated by initiating transient faults sequentially in the network at different nodes and under different loading conditions. This is done by using Power System Blockset (PSB), Power System Analysis Toolbox (PSAT) and Alternate Transient Program (ATP) simulation tools and computing important surge arrester parameters i.e. continuous operating voltage, rated voltage, discharge current and energy absorption capability (EAC). These parameters are assessed by in the EGTN by evaluating computed surge arrester parameters against parameters provided by manufacturers, the Eskom 88 kV surge arrester specification and those parameters recommended in IEC 60099-4. To assess the impact and contribution of in-service conditions, faults and quality of supply emissions in surge arrester failures these contributing factors are investigated by assessing infra-red scans, fault analysis reports, results of the sampled faulted surge arrester in this network and quality of supply parameters around the time of failures. This study found that Eskom transmission and distribution network reliability indices can be standardized as distribution reliability indices i.e. SAIDI, SAIFI, CAIDI, ASAI and ASUI indices are similar to Eskom transmission indices i.e. SM, NOI, circuit availability index and circuit unavailability index respectively. Transient simulations in this study showed that certain surge arresters in the EGTN had their rated surge arrester parameters exceeded under certain transient conditions and loading conditions. These surge arresters failed as their discharge currents and EACs were exceeded under heavy and light network loading conditions. This study concluded that surge arresters whose discharge currents and EACs exceeded were improperly evaluated and selected prior to their installations in the EGTN. This study found the EAC to be the most import parameter in surge arrester performance evaluations. The Eskom 88 kV surge arrester specification was found to be inadequate, inaccurate and ambiguous as a number of inconsistencies in the usage of IEEE and IEC classified systems terminology were found. It was concluded that these inconsistencies may have led to confusions for manufacturers during surge arrester designs and selections in the EGTN. The evaluation of fault reports showed that two surge arrester failures in this network were caused by hardware failures such as conductor failure and poor network operating as the line was continuously closed onto a fault. There was no evidence that poor in-service and quality of supply emissions contributed to surge arrester failures in this network. PSB, PSAT and ATP simulation tools were found adequate in modelling and simulating the EGTN. However the PSB tool was found to be slow as the network expanded and the PSAT required user defined surge arrester models requiring detailed manufacture data sheets which are not readily available. ATP was found to be superior in terms of speed and accuracy in comparison to the PSB and PSAT tools. The MATLAB code proposed by Shavuka et al. [1] was found to be suitable and accurate in assessing transmission networks as EGTN's reliability indices computed from this code were comparable to benchmarked Eskom distribution reliability indices. The work carried out in this research will assist in improving surge arrester performance evaluations, the current surge arrester specification and surge arrester selections. Simulation tools utilized in this work show great potential in achieving this. Reliability studies conducted in this work will assist in standardizing reliability indices between Eskom's transmission and distribution divisions. In-service condition assessment carried out in this work will improve surge arrester condition monitoring and preventive maintenance practices.

Το θέμα της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι η μελέτη της συμπεριφοράς απαγωγέων υπερτάσεων (SPD), όταν αυτοί αποτελούν μέρος του εσωτερικού συστήματος αντικεραυνικής προστασίας για μια οικιακή εγκατάσταση. Αρχικά γίνεται μια αναφορά στα αίτια δημιουργίας κρουστικών υπερτάσεων στο δίκτυο διανομής, ενώ στη συνέχεια δίνεται έμφαση στις υπερτάσεις που προκαλούνται από άμεσα ή έμμεσα κεραυνικά πλήγματα στο σύστημα. Στα πλαίσια της μελέτης δημιουργήθηκε ένα μοντέλο προσομοίωσης που αναπαριστά ένα δίκτυο χαμηλής τάσης TN-C-S με δύο πανομοιότυπους οικιακούς καταναλωτές, όσον αφορά τη δομή της εσωτερικής ηλεκτρικής εγκατάστασής τους παρουσία ή μη διατάξεων αντικεραυνικής προστασίας. Σκοπός της προκειμένης μελέτης είναι να δειχθεί η βέλτιστη συνδεσμολογία των διατάξεων προστασίας μέσα σε εσωτερικές ηλεκτρικές εγκαταστάσεις έτσι ώστε να αποτρέπεται η ανάπτυξη επικίνδυνων τάσεων και ρευμάτων για τον άνθρωπο και τον εξοπλισμό της οικιακής εγκατάστασης. / The subject of this project is a study upon the dynamic performance of surge arresters as a part of the internal lightning protection system for a residential electrical installation. At first, a reference about the actions or the natural phenomena that cause surge overvoltages in low voltage systems is given in detail and is followed by an essential theoretical approach on the lighning phenomenon. Both the causes, the consequences and the conditions in which a lightning occurs are being analysed. Furthermore, the characteristics and the qualifications a Lightning Protection System needs to comply with, are given, according to the Greek Standard ΕΛΟΤ-1197 and the European Standards IEC 62305-2, IEC 61643-12. Along with writing this essay, a simulation model using Simulink-Matlab was produced. The model represents a LV TN-C-S system that distributes power to two households with identical internal electrical installation. The aim of the present study is to indicate the optimal connection of the surge protective devices (SPDs) in the domestic electrical installation in order to prevent the appearance of potentially dangerous overvoltages to the humans or to the household equipment.