Thesis (MTech. degree in Chemistry)--Tshwane University of Technology, 2008. / This work is aimed at experimental verification of the theory about the advantages of the two-step sample vapour release in a fast-heated ballast furnace. The term “ballast” was introduced earlier in electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry, as an alternative to a platform to describe a compact body of refractive material loosely located on the bottom of a tube furnace atomiser. The thermal behaviour of the ballast furnace is similar to that of the platform, but without restriction created by the platform area. Compared with the flat or concave platform, a compact ballast of similar mass to the platform should have less impact on gas temperature because of the smaller surface area. The theoretical predictions concerning atomisation efficiency in the fast-heated ballast furnace were examined by the determination of metals in organic and inorganic matrices using a Quantum Z.ETA atomic absorption spectrometer. The instrument provided fast heating of the tube atomizer, 10 K ms-1. It is shown that in the employed ballast furnace the vapour released into the gas phase occurs after interim condensation on the ballast. For the samples of tetraethyllead, base oil and aqueous solutions of various metals, analytical signals are observed after stabilisation of tube temperature, independent of volatility of the analyte and level of temperature setting. For those samples, a high gas phase temperature provides complete recovery of the analyte without involvement of chemical modifiers and the reduction of spectral interferences from chloride matrices.

published_or_final_version / Chemistry / Master / Master of Philosophy

Selenium has been shown to have multiple biochemical effects ranging from nutrient deficiency at low levels to toxicity at high levels. This duality of concern has led to a demand for increased numbers of highly accurate and precise determinations of selenium in biological materials. A convenient procedure was developed for determining selenoamino acids by HPLC-THG-AAS, based on the derivatization of these analytes with Sanger's reagent. Selenomethionine, selenocystine and selenocysteine (after blocking the free selenol group with phenylmercurio cation) were converted to their N-2,4-dinitrophenyl derivatives, and separated on a Nucleosil 5-NO$ sb2$ column with methanolic mobile phase containing acetic acid and triethylamine. Furthermore, an improved HPLC-AAS interface design was modified and optimized for the detection of selenium in HPLC column eluate. The new design was (i) compatible with aqueous mobile phases containing volatile buffers and (ii) provided equivalent molar response to analytes containing Se($-$II), Se(+IV) and Se(+VI). A method for simultaneously determination of selenate, selenite, selenocystine, selenomethionine and selenoethionine was developed by using the HPLC-AAS system with aqueous acetic acid containing ammonium acetate as eluate solution on the cyanopropyl column. The equivalent low ng limits of detection (1-2 ng as Se) for different oxidation states of selenium analytes were obtained using several different mobile phases and/or columns. A phenol extraction procedure for selenate, selenite, selenocystine, selenomethionine and selenoethionine was evaluated for the determination of these selenium analytes in natural waters and wheat samples. The current HPLC-AAS system provides an inexpensive alternative to conventional techniques for the determination of selenium analytes in environmental samples.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Uppsala : Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, 2007. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.

Thesis -- Departmental honors in Chemistry. / Bibliography: ℓ. 26-28.

Thesis (M. Phil.)--University of Hong Kong, 1998. / Includes bibliographical references.

Relatório realizado pela CETESB em 2006 mostrou que 80% dos 645 municípios são total ou parcialmente abastecidos por água subterrânea e que em 13 bacias hidrográficas do Estado de São Paulo a água subterrânea é a fonte prioritária de abastecimento. O uso da água subterrânea em diversos setores reforça a sua importância e gera preocupações quanto a sua proteção e qualidade. A região noroeste do Estado de São Paulo, abastecida principalmente por captação de água subterrânea do aqüífero Guarani por meio de poços tubulares, apresenta ocorrência de Selênio. Assim, no presente trabalho procurou-se avaliar a contribuição de selênio em águas subterrâneas. Foram coletadas amostras de água subterrânea de quatro poços tubulares profundos captadas do aqüífero Guarani na região noroeste do Estado de São Paulo e foram realizadas medidas do elemento selênio, utilizando a espectrometria de absorção atômica com atomização eletrotérmica (GFAAS) e geração de hidretos (HGAAS). Além do selênio também foram analisados outros metais (B, Al, V, Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu, Zn, Mo, Sn, Li, Be, Mg, P, Ca, Fe, Ba, Co, Na, Si, K, Ag, Cd, Pb, Sb, Hg e As) por ICP OES em todas as amostras. A caracterização do selênio foi realizada com uma periodicidade de amostragem trimestral, no período de Março de 2006 a Março de 2007, totalizando cinco campanhas. O metal analisado neste estudo foi selecionado atendendo-se as exigências da legislação que avalia a qualidade da água para abastecimento publico, estabelecendo limites máximos permissíveis para concentração de metais: Portaria 518/2004 MS (VPM para Se: 0,010 mg/L), referente à potabilidade. As análises realizadas mostraram que as concentrações de Se estão acima do limite máximo permissível e que as técnicas atomização eletrotérmica (GFAAS) e geração de hidretos (HGAAS) demonstraram equivalência nos resultados. As análises demonstraram que a presença de Se parece estar associada a fatores mineralógicos (formação geológica da região) e as metodologias apresentaram-se eficientes com respostas similares diferenciando-se em fatores operacionais e de custo. / Report carried out for CETESB in 2006 showed 80% of the 645 cities are totally or partially supplied by underground water, and for 13 river basins of São Paulo State the underground water is the priority source for potable water supply. The use of underground water in different sectors reinforces its importance and highlight the concern about their protection and quality. The northwest region of São Paulo state is mainly supplied by underground water of the Guarani aquifer extracted by tubular wells, which presents some occurrence of Selenium. In the present study it was looked and evaluated, through the comparison of high sensitivity and selectivity methods as the atomic absorption spectrometry using electrothermal atomizaton (GFAAS) and the hydride generation (HGAAS). Underground water samples of four deep tubular wells of Guarani aquifer in the northwest of São Paulo state were collected to measure the selenium element. In addition to selenium other metals were analyzed (B, Al, V, Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu, Zn, Mo, Sn, Li, Be, Mg, P, Ca, Fe, Ba, Co, Na, Si, K, Ag, Cd, Pb, Sb, Hg and As). The characterization of selenium was carried out with quarterly sampling regularity, in the period of March of 2006 to March of 2007, totalizing five campaigns. The metal analyzed in this study was selected according to the requirements of the legislation for potable water quality evaluation, establishing permissible maximum limits for metal concentration. The results had shown the concentrations of Se are above of the maximum permissible limits and the techniques electrothermal atomization (GFAAS) and hydride generation (HGAAS) demonstrated equivalence in their results. The results demonstrated also the presence of Se can be associated with mineralogical factors (as geologic formation of the region) and the applied methodologies were efficient with similar answers for different operational factors and expenses.

Os micro e macroelementos são nutrientes essenciais para o correto funcionamento do metabolismo humano, participando direta ou indiretamente de diversas funções metabólicas e estruturais do organismo, tais como cofatores de enzimas, equilíbrio osmótico nas interfaces de membranas biológicas, biossinalização, constituintes de biomoléculas importantes para o organismo, dentre outros. O consumo de frutas, hortaliças e cereais na dieta é uma forma de se obter as necessidades diárias destes nutrientes, uma vez que se trata de um grupo de alimentos ricos nesses elementos. Levando em conta que apenas uma parcela dos nutrientes de um alimento é bioacessível durante a digestão humana, avaliar a bioacessibilidade destes nutrientes é muito importante. Esta pesquisa de mestrado destinou-se a quantificar, por meio de técnicas espectrométricas de absorção atômica, o teor de micro e macroelementos em alimentos dentro do grupo das frutas, hortaliças e cereais (mais e menos conhecidos pela população brasileira em geral), e posteriormente avaliar, por meio de um teste in vitro, a bioacessibilidade destes elementos nos alimentos. Além disso, visando buscar correlações entre os resultados, a composição centesimal e o conteúdo de ácido fítico dos alimentos analisados foram também determinados. A composição centesimal dos alimentos revelou que os pseudocereais amaranto e quinoa são fontes importantes de proteínas para os humanos. No que diz respeito aos cereais, evidenciou-se que o processo de cozimento provoca uma diminuição dos conteúdos totais dos micro e macroelementos determinados na pesquisa, mas também faz com que as porcentagens de bioacessibilidade aumentem consideravelmente em relação aos cereais crus, mostrando que o maior aproveitamento do potencial nutritivo dos cereais analisados no que tange aos micro e macroelementos estudados é obtido quando os cereais estão cozidos. As quantidades totais e bioacessíveis dos elementos nos alimentos permitiram constatar que existe um relacionamento entre a quantidade de um determinado elemento químico necessária na dieta diária dos seres humanos, e a quantidade deste mesmo elemento presente nas frutas, hortaliças e cereais analisados na pesquisa de mestrado, pois para os macroelementos estas quantidades (total e bioacessível) foram, de modo geral, maiores do que as correspondentes quantidades para os microelementos. Além disso, os resultados mostraram que as hortaliças analisadas podem atuar como boas fontes de cálcio (Ca) para a dieta diária dos seres humanos, e que o macroelemento potássio (K) possui as maiores quantidades totais e bioacessíveis, informação que se encontra em concordância com o fato de este elemento (o K) ser fundamental no crescimento de qualquer espécie vegetal, e de que todos os alimentos analisados na pesquisa são provenientes direta ou indiretamente de espécies vegetais. De modo geral observou-se que a quantidade bioacessível dos elementos nos alimentos menos conhecidos é maior ou igual em relação às correspondentes quantidades presentes nos alimentos mais conhecidos pela população brasileira em geral, demonstrando o potencial nutritivo das frutas, hortaliça e cereais menos conhecidos analisados. A determinação do conteúdo de ácido fítico (fitatos) dos alimentos permitiu evidenciar a tendência de que quanto maior o conteúdo de ácido fítico de um alimento, menor a porcentagem de bioacessibilidade mineral (micro e macroelementos). Para os cereais observaram-se algumas contradições a esta tendência, que possibilitaram concluir que a influência do ácido fítico (e seus fitatos) na bioacessibilidade mineral depende das partes dos grãos cereais (pericarpo, endosperma ou gérmen) que alojam as maiores porcentagens do conteúdo total tanto de ácido fítico, quanto dos elementos químicos nutrientes. Além disso, os resultados também permitiram concluir que os fitatos possuem diferentes intensidades de ligação com os cátions dos elementos nutrientes presentes nas amostras alimentares; desse modo, a influência dos fitatos na bioacessibilidade é maior para alguns elementos e menor para outros, dependendo da estabilidade dos complexos mineral-fitatos. Comparando tipo a tipo os alimentos menos conhecidos e os mais conhecidos pela população brasileira em geral, constatou-se que mesmo tendo conteúdos de ácido fítico comparáveis aos alimentos mais conhecidos, nos alimentos menos conhecidos esse conteúdo exerce uma influência menor sobre a bioacessibilidade mineral de forma geral, mostrando que os alimentos menos conhecidos estudados possuem um valor nutricional no que tange aos micro e macroelementos comparável e, em alguns casos, até maior do que os alimentos mais conhecidos. Levando em conta que o ácido fítico (e seus fitatos) também pode apresentar benefícios para a saúde, os resultados permitiram concluir que o amaranto e a quinoa são alimentos com notáveis propriedades nutricionais, pois combinam um significativo conteúdo de ácido fítico com boas quantidades bioacessíveis dos micro e macroelementos determinados na pesquisa de mestrado. / The micro and macroelements are essential nutrients for proper functioning of the human metabolism, directly or indirectly participating in various metabolic functions and structural organization, such as cofactors of enzymes, osmotic equilibrium at the interface of biological membranes, biosignaling, important constituents of biomolecules for body, among others. The consumption of fruits, vegetables and cereals in the diet is a way to obtain the daily requirements of these nutrients, since it is a group of foods rich in these elements. Taking into account that only a portion of the nutrients of a food is bioaccessible during human digestion, assess the bioaccessibility these nutrients is very important. This research aimed to quantify, by means of atomic absorption spectrometric techniques, the micro and macroelements content in foods within of group of fruits, vegetables and cereals (more or less known by Brazilian population in general), and subsequently evaluating, by means of an in vitro test, the bioaccessibility these elements in the food. Furthermore, in order to seek correlations between the results, the percent composition and phytic acid content of foods analyzed were also determined. The percent composition of food revealed that the pseudocereals amaranth and quinoa are important sources of protein for humans. With regard to cereals, it became clear that the cooking process causes a decrease in the total contents of micro and macroelements determined in the research, but also makes the percentages of bioaccessibility increase considerably compared to raw grains, showing that the more nutritional potential of cereals analyzed (in relation to micro and macroelements studied) is obtained when the cereals are cooked. The total and bioaccessibles amounts of elements in foods allowed to observe that there is a relationship between the amount of a chemical element necessary in the daily diet of humans, and the amount of that element present in fruits, vegetables and cereals analyzed in the research, because for the macroelements these quantities (total and bioaccessible) were generally larger than those corresponding to the microelements. Furthermore, the results showed that the vegetables analyzed can act as good sources of calcium (Ca) for the daily diet of humans, and that the macroelement potassium (K) has the largest totals and bioaccessibles quantity, information that is in accordance with the fact of the K be essential in the growth of any plant species, and that all foods analyzed in this research are derived directly or indirectly from plant species. Overall it was observed that the amount bioaccessible of elements in the food less known is equal or greater in relation to the corresponding quantities present in the foods well known by Brazilian population, demonstrating the nutritive potential of fruits, vegetable and cereals less known analyzed. The determination of content of phytic acid (phytates) of foods allowed to evidence the trend of that as higher the phytic acid content of a food, lower the percentage of bioaccessibility mineral (micro and macroelements). For cereals was observed some contradictions to this trend, which allowed to conclude that the influence of phytic acid (and their phytates) in the bioaccessibility mineral depends of part of cereal grains (pericarp, endosperm and germ) that contains the largest percentages of total content of phytic acid and of chemical elements nutrients. Furthermore, the results also showed that the phytate have different intensities of connection with the cations of nutrients elements present in food samples; thus the influence of phytic acid in bioaccessibility is greater for some elements and smaller for other, depending on stability of mineral-phytate complexes. Comparing type by type the foods less and well known by Brazilian population in general, it was found that even with phytic acid content comparable to the most popular foods, in less known foods this content has a minor influence on the mineral bioaccessibility in general, showing that the foods less known studied have a nutritional value in relation to micro and macroelements comparable and, in some cases, greater than the well known foods. Taking into account that the phytic acid (and their phytates) can also bring health benefits, the results showed that amaranth and quinoa are foods with remarkable nutritional properties, since they combine a significant content of phytic acid with good bioaccessibles amounts of micro and macroelements determined in the research.

O objetivo desse trabalho foi o desenvolvimento de métodos analíticos para a determinação simultânea de Cd/Pb em cimento e Cr/Mn em alumina por espectrometria de absorção atômica com atomização eletrotérmica (SIMAAS) e amostragem de suspensão. Considerando os erros de amostragem de suspensão e as condições compromissadas impostas para a determinação simultânea, foi também objetivo do trabalho estudar a aplicação de padrão interno para corrigir erros sistemático e aleatório. A viabilidade de se usar o Tl como padrão interno foi explorada na determinação de Cd e Pb em cimento. O uso do padrão interno se baseou na hipótese de que o elemento Tl deveria adsorver quantitativamente sobre as partículas do material em suspensão. Foi feito o estudo térmico dos elementos Cd, Pb e Tl em soluções aquosas e suspensões, na presença e ausência de diferentes modificadores químicos. O melhor modificador químico (5 µg Pd + 3 µg Mg) foi escolhido com base nos gráficos de correlação. As melhores temperaturas de pirólise e atomização para a determinação simultânea de Cd e Pb foram 600°C e 2000°C, respectivamente. A preparação das amostras foi feita com suspensões contendo 30 µg L-1 de Tl em 0,1 % (v v-1) de HNO3 + 0,025 % (m v-1) de Triton X-100. A avaliação da exatidão foi feita com a determinação de Cd e Pb em cimento de construção civil e dentário com análise de solução e análise de materiais de referência de sedimento marinho (MESS1 e BCSS 1) e de rio (Buffalo River, IEAEA 356). Os resultados foram concordantes em um nível de confiança de 95% (teste t-student). Os limites de detecção (LD) obtidos foram 0,14 µg L-1 (1,4pg) para o Cd e de 1,2 µg L-1 (12 pg) para Pb. As massas características foram 1,2 pg e 25 pg para Cd e Pb, respectivamente. Na determinação simultânea de Cr e Mn em alumina não foi utilizado padrão interno. O estudo envolveu a obtenção de curvas de pirólise e atomização em presença de diferentes modificadores. Estudos de interferência mostraram que 100 mg L-1 de Al provocaram aumento nos sinais analíticos dos elementos que foi eliminado com o modificador químico NaOH (0,2 mol L-1) + HF (0,4 mol L-1) combinado com 350 µg de Nb. Nessa condição as temperaturas de pirólise e atomização foram 1400°C e 2400°C, respectivamente. As suspensões de alumina foram preparadas em 2 % (v v-1) HNO3. A avaliação da exatidão foi feita com a determinação de Cr e Mn em material de referência de alumina (Alumina Reduction Grade - 699) e os resultados foram concordantes em um nível de confiança de 95% (teste t-student). Os limites de detecção (LD), estimados a partir da variabilidade de 20 medidas consecutivas de uma solução contendo 2 % (v v-1) HNO3 foram 0,11 µg L-1 (2,2 pg) para Cr e 0,17 µg L-1 (3,5 pg) para o Mn. As massas características foram 10 pg e 1,3 pg para Cr e Mn, respectivamente. / The aim of this work was the development of analytical methods for the simultaneous determination of Cd/Pb in cement and Cr/Mn in alumina by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry (SIMAAS) and slurry sampling. Considering the errors of slurry sampling and the imposed compromissed conditions for the simultaneous determination, it was also the aiming of this work to study the application of internal standard for the sistematic and random errors correction. The viability of using Tl as internal standard was investigated for Cd and Pb determination in cement. The internal standard aplicability was based on the hypothesis of the element Tl would have to adsorver quantitatively on the particles of the material in suspension. The thermal behaviour of Cd, Pb and Tl in aqueous solutions and suspensions was obtained in presence and absence of different chemical modifiers. The best chemical modifier (5 mg Pd + 3 mg Mg) was chosen based on correlation graphs. The pyrolysis and atomization temperatures for the simultaneous determination of Pb were 600°C and 2000°C, respectively. The sample the preparation was made with 30 mg L-1 of Tl in 0,1% (v v-1) of HNO3 + 0.025% (m v-1 of Triton X-100. The evaluation of the accuracy was made with the determination of Cd and Pb in cement, microwave extraction in acid media and analysis of marine sediment reference materials (MESS1 and BCSS 1) and river sediment (Buffalo River, IEAEA 356). The results are concordant at 95% of confidence level using Studen\'s t-test. The detention limits (LD) was 0.14 µg L-1 (1.4 pg) for Cd and 1.2 µg L-1(12 pg) for Pb. The characteristic masses were 1.2 pg and 25 pg for Cd and Pb, respectively. The simultaneous determination of Cr and Mn in alumina was done without internal standard. Pyrolysis and atomization temperaturas were obtained in presence of different modifiers. Studies of interference shown that 100 mg L-1 of Al provoked increase in the analytical signals of Cr and Mn that was eliminated with the chemical modifier NaOH (0,2 mol L-1) + HF (0,4 mol L-1) combined with 350 mg of Nb as permanent chemical modifier. In this condition pyrolysis and atomization temperatures were 1400 °C and 2400 °C, respectively. The alumina suspensions were prepared in 2% (v v-1) HNO3. The evaluation of the accuracy was made with the determination of Cr and Mn in alumina reference material (Reduction Alumina Grating - 699) and the results were concordant at 95 % of the confidence level using Student\'s t-test. The detention limits (LD) were 0.11 µg L-1 (2.2 pg) for Cr and 0.17 µg L-1 (3.5 pg) for Mn. The characteristic masses were 10 and 1.3 pg for Cr and Mn, respectively.

An atmospheric pressure radio frequency capacitively coupled plasma (CCP) has been developed and characterized for applications in atomic emission spectrometry (AES), atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) and gas chromatography (GC). The CCP torch was initially designed as an atom reservoir for carrying out elemental analysis using atomic absorption. Functionally, the device consists of two parts, the CCP discharge tube and the tantalum strip electrothermal vaporization sample introduction system. The torch design provides for very effective energy transfer from the power supply to the plasma by capacitive coupling. Therefore, the plasma can be generated at atmospheric pressure with a flexible geometry. The plasma can be operated at very low rf input powers (30-600 W) enabling optimal conditions for atom resonance line absorption measurements. Absorption by the analyte takes place within the plasma discharge which is characterized by a long path length (20 cm) and low support gas flow rate (0.2 L/Min). Both of these characteristics ensure a relatively long residence time. The device exhibits linear calibration plots and provides sensitivities in the range of 3.5-40 pg. A preliminary measurement gave a Fe I excitation temperature of approximately 4000 K for the discharge. At this temperature, potential chemical interferences are likely to be minimal. Chemical interferences for Fe, Al, As, Ca, Co, Cd, Li, Mo and Sr were negligible in the determination of silver. Chloride interference, which is prevalent in GF-AAS, was not found. The amount of Ag found in a SMR#1643b (NIST) water sample was 9.5 ± 0.5 ng/g which fell in the certified range of 9.8 ± 0.8 ng/g. Spikes of 30 ng/g and 60 ng/g of silver were added to the SRM and recoveries were found to be in a range from 105 % to 96.2 %. The RSD obtained for 7 replicates of 270 pg silver was 4.6 %. The results for the CCP AES are even more promising. The interferences of thirteen elements are negligible in the determination of silver. The chloride interference was not found. The detection limits for Ag, Cd, Li, Sb and B are 0.7, 0.7, 2, 80 and 400 pg respectively. The amount of silver found in a SRM#1643b (NIST) water sample was 9.3 ± 0.5 ng/g which also fell in the certified range of 9.8 ±0.8 ng/g. Spikes of 30 ng/g and 60 ng/g of silver were added into the SRM#1643b (NIST) samples; the recoveries were found to range from 97 % to 104 %. The RSD obtained for 7 analyses of 270 pg silver were 1.5 % for CCP-AES. It was also found that the signal to noise ratios (S/N) are higher in the AES mode than those in the AAS mode in the same CCP atomizer. In order to exploit advantages inherent in both GF-AAS and I CP-AES, an atmospheric pressure capacitively coupled plasma sustained inside a graphite furnace was developed. This source combines the high efficiency of atomization in furnaces and the high efficiency of the excitation in atmospheric pressure plasmas. In general, plasma sources are able to effectively excite high-lying excited states for most metals and non-metals and can also ionize vaporized elements. Therefore the possibility exists of using non-resonance lines to avoid the effects of self-absorption at high analyte concentrations. Ion lines may also be used in cases where they provide better sensitivity or freedom from spectral interferences. This source also offers the ability to independently optimize vaporization and excitation. However, the most important aspect of this new source is that it can be used for simultaneous, multielement determinations of small sized samples in a graphite furnace atomizer, a design which has been proven to be effective over many years of use. Preliminary quantitative characteristics of this new atmospheric pressure plasma emission source have been studied. The detection limit for Ag of 0.3 pg is lower than the value of 0.4 pg reported for GF-AAS. Variants of the CCP, including a gas chromatography (GC) detector, combinations of laser ablation - CCP, rf sputtering - CCP direct solid analysis, and its application as an intense spectral lamp have been developed and are reported in this dissertation. / Science, Faculty of / Chemistry, Department of / Graduate