Ce travail de thèse a pour sujet la conception des cellules solaires photovoltaïques à base de pérovskite hybride par le biais de la technologie d’impression jet d’encre. Les deux premiers chapitres font la présentation du contexte de la thèse, à savoir l’alimentation d’un réseau autonome de capteurs, et passent en revue les aspects scientifiques des technologies jet d’encre et photovoltaïque de nouvelle génération. Le troisième chapitre présente la mise au point d’une cellule photovoltaïque à l’état de l’art et son évolution vers une architecture imprimable à basse température de recuit. La problématique de la stabilité des cellules photovoltaïques à pérovskite est aussi abordée. La dernière partie présente les différents aspects et problématiques de l’impression par jet d’encre des trois couches internes d’une cellule solaire pérovskite. Au terme de ce travail la possibilité d’imprimer des cellules solaires pérovskites avec des rendements supérieurs à 10 % a été démontrée, le tout en condition ambiante et à basse température. / This thesis is about the design of photovoltaic solar cells based on hybrid perovskite using inkjet printing technology. The first two chapters present the context of the thesis, namely the powering of an autonomous sensor network, and review the scientific aspects of inkjet and photovoltaic technologies. The third chapter presents the development of a state-of-the-art photovoltaic cell and its evolution towards a printable architecture at low annealing temperatures. The problem of the stability of photovoltaic cells with perovskite is also discussed. The last part presents the different aspects and problems of the inkjet printing of the three inner layers of a perovskite solar cell. At the end of this work the possibility of printing perovskite solar cells with efficiencies higher than 10% has been demonstrated, all in ambient conditions and at low temperature.

Sensor networks are being used in several emerging applications not even imagined some years ago due to advances in sensing, computing, and communication techniques. However, these advances also pose various challenges that must be faced. One important challenge is related to the autonomous capability needed to setup and adapt the networks, which decentralizes the control of the network, saving communication and energy resources. Middleware technology helps in addressing this kind of problem, but there is still a need for additional solutions, particularly considering dynamic changes in users' requirements and operation conditions. This paper presents an agent-based framework acting as an integral part of a middleware to support autonomous setup and adaptation of sensor networks. It adds interoperability among heterogeneous nodes in the network, by means of autonomous behavior and reasoning. These features also address the needs for system setup and adaptations in the network, reducing the communication overhead and decentralizing the decision making mechanism. Additionally, preliminary results are also presented.

La récupération d’énergie thermique peut être réalisée par de nombreuses techniques de transduction d’énergie. Les techniques directes de conversion d’énergie thermique en énergie électrique sont généralement les technologies les plus utilisées. Lorsque des générateurs miniaturisés son requis, des méthodes directes de conversion présentent des difficultés, y compris la nécessité des dissipateurs de chaleur volumineux ou la forte dépendance aux fluctuations de température rapides. Donc, les méthodes de conversion indirecte, comme la conversion d’énergie thermique à mécanique et puis mécanique à électrique sont présentées comme des alternatives aux récupérateurs d’énergie. Cette technologie ouvre une nouvelle ligne de recherche pour surmonter les contraintes des récupérateurs d’énergie à petite échelle. Même si leur rendement est relativement faible en raison des pertes liées aux étapes de conversion d’énergie, les générateurs d’énergie basés sur l’effet thermomagnétique présentent une densité de puissance élevée lors de leur miniaturisation. Néanmoins, peu de recherches sur la récupération d’énergie thermomagnétique à petite échelle ont été menées et aucune étude de faisabilité industrielle n’a été signalée jusqu’à présent. Ces travaux présentent la conception d’un générateur capable de convertir de faibles et de lentes fluctuations de température ambiante en électricité. L’effet thermomagnétique d’un matériau magnétique doux, à savoir l’alliage de fer et de nickel (FeNi) ainsi que la piézoélectricité sont la base de fonctionnement du dispositif. Cette thermo-magnétisation entraîne la conversion d’énergie thermique, sous la forme de fluctuations temporelles, en vibrations mécaniques d’une structure. La structure consiste en un bimorphe piézoélectrique (PZT). Le générateur a deux positions stables; la position ouverte et celle fermée. En modifiant la température de FeNi, l’interaction entre deux forces du système (forces magnétique et mécanique) amène le générateur à l’une de ses deux commutations. La température de Curie du FeNi étant proche de la température ambiante, des applications comme des dispositifs connectés portables peuvent être ciblées. Un modèle analytique est développé. Donc, une conception rapide du générateur est réalisée pour répondre aux cahiers des charges tels que: la température d’opération, la plage de températures, la réponse thermique, les capacités de conversion piézoélectrique, etc. De plus, des règles de conception ont été dérivées envers la réduction de la taille du générateur. Des modélisations par éléments finis sont développés sous ANSYS afin de valider notre modèle analytique simplifié. Ces modèles permettent aux concepteurs d’explorer d’autres matériaux et de faire des améliorations en utilisant des processus d’optimisation de la conception. Des prototypes des récupérateurs d’énergie atteignent des densités de puissance de 0.6μWcm^−3 pendant des commutations d’ouverture à 40°C et 0.02μWcm^−3 pendant des commutations de fermeture à 28°C. En réduisant la taille du générateur, des commutations d’ouverture à 31°C et des commutations de fermeture à 27°C, sont atteints. La distance initiale de séparation entre l’aimant permanent et l’alliage magnétique doux est identifiée comme une clé pour augmenter la capacité de conversion d’énergie du générateur. Un modèle équivalent électrique du générateur est développé afin de concevoir un circuit d’extraction d’énergie ainsi qu’un module de gestion d’énergie. Ce circuit est développé sous PSpice, permettant de mettre en œuvre des pertes liées aux matériaux (pertes mécaniques et diélectriques). Par le biais d’ajustement de courbe, ce modèle est capable de calculer des valeurs de pertes. Une analyse de la variabilité de la conception est réalisée afin d’explorer la faisabilité industrielle d’un tel générateur. Ainsi, la récupération d’énergie thermomagnétique peut concourir, pour la première fois, avec les thermo-générateurs les plus modernes. / Thermal energy harvesting can be realized by numerous techniques of energy transduction. Direct conversions of thermal to electrical energy are typically the most popular technologies used. When miniaturized generators are required, direct conversion methods present difficulties, including the need of bulky heat sinks or the strong dependence to rapid temperature fluctuations. Therefore, indirect conversion methods, like thermal-to-mechanical-to-electrical energy are presented as an alternative to thermal energy harvesters towards powering autonomous sensors. This disruptive technology opens up a new approach to overcome the limitations of miniaturized thermal energy harvesting systems. Even if having a relatively low efficiency due to losses linked to energy conversion steps, energy harvesters based on thermo-magnetic effect show a large power density upon miniaturization. Nevertheless, little research on thermo-magnetic energy harvesting at miniature scale has been conducted and no competitive electrical output has been reported until now.This work presents the design of a generator able to convert small and slow ambient temperature fluctuations into electricity. It exploits the thermo-magnetic effect of a soft magnetic material, namely, iron nickel alloy (FeNi) and piezoelectricity. Thermo-magnetization of FeNi is driving the conversion of thermal energy, in the form of temporal fluctuations, into mechanical vibrations of a structure. The structure consists in a piezoelectric bimorph (PZT) cantilever beam. The generator has two stable positions; open position and closed one. Curie temperature of FeNi being near to ambient temperature, applications like wearable connected devices may be targeted. By changing the temperature of the soft magnetic alloy, the interaction between counterbalance forces (magnetic and mechanical forces) leads the generator to one of its two commutations.Analytical model is developed in order to predict generator performance. Making use of this model, a rapid design of generator is conducted to fit custom requirements such as: temperature of operations, temperature range of operation, thermal response, piezoelectric energy conversion capabilities, etc.Additionally, main design rules were derived from the design parameters of the generator. Special attention was paid on how scaling down size affects the generator performance by using the analytical model.Finite element models are developed through ANSYS software in order to validate the analytical simplified model. They couple the thermal to magnetic field and then mechanical to electrical energy conversion is solved. This model allows designers to explore other materials and do improvements by using design optimization processes.First generation energy harvesting demonstrators achieve power densities of 0.6µWcm^-3 during opening commutations around 40°C and 0.02µWcm^-3 at closing commutations around 28°C. By reducing the generator’s size opening commutations at 31°C while closing commutations at 27°C are achieved. By modifying design parameters such as initial distance of separation between the permanent magnet and soft magnetic alloy is identified as a key to boost the energy conversion capability of the generator. Finally, electrical equivalent model of this thermo-magnetically activated piezoelectric generator is developed to design an energy extraction circuit and power management module. This circuit is developed in a unique software PSpice, to implement losses linked to materials (mechanic and dielectric losses). Making use of curve fitting processes, this model is able to find losses values. A variability analysis of the design is conducted by using the analytical model through Matlab in order to explore the feasibility of producing such a generator industrially. Thus, thermo-magnetic energy harvesting can compete for the first time with the state-of-the-art thermos-electrics.

Tato diplomová práce se zabývá vývojem autonomního zdroje elektrické energie založeného na MEMS termoelektrickém generátoru. Uvažovaný generátor bude následně použit pro napájení autonomní senzorické jednotky pro letecké aplikace. Systémový pohled na autonomní senzorickou jednotku zahrnuje senzor se zpracováním a přenosem dat, energy harvester (termoelektrický generátor), power management, akumulační prvek a autodiagnostiku. Všechny výše uvedené komponenty jsou v práci podrobně popsány. V úvodu práce je provedena široká rešerše existujících termoelektrických generátorů pro letecké aplikace. Následně jsou popsány základní teoretické poznatky z oblasti DC/DC měničů pro energy harvesting. Zvláštní pozornost je věnována metodám MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking). Jako základ pro vývoj napájení autonomní senzorické jednotky bylo provedeno množství simulací za pomoci nástroje MATLAB/Simulink Simscape. Pro identifikaci prametrů modelu posloužilo měření na speciálním přípravku. Praktická implementace teoreticky popsaných problémů je provedena na k tomuto účelu navrženém technologickém demonstrátoru. Závěrem je zhodnocena reálná využitelnost navržené technologie pro finální aplikaci v leteckém průmyslu.

Předložená disertační práce řeší komplexní mechatronický návrh autonomního termoelektrického zdroje energie pro letecké aplikace. Na základě dostupných zdrojů a literatury práce popisuje současný stav problematiky. V práci jsou prezentovány simulační modely MEMS termoelektrických článků, které jsou ověřeny experimentálním testováním a hodnotami dostupnými od výrobce. Na základě metodiky model-besed design byly navrženy a vyrobeny tři demonstrátory. Jejich vlastnosti byly testovány v reálných podmínkách na letecké pohonné jednotce.

Advanced monitoring of the spatio-temporal distribution of process parameters in large-scale vessels and containers such as stirred chemical or bioreactors offers a high potential for the investigation and further optimization of plants and embedded processes. This applies especially to large-scale fermentation biogas reactors where the process performance including the biological processes highly depend on mixing parameters of the complex bio-substrates. Sufficient mixing is a basic requirement for a stable operation of the process and adequate process performance. However, this condition is rarely met in agricultural biogas plants and the process efficiency is often reduced dramatically by inhomogeneities in the agitated vessels. Without a doupt, investigation and monitoring of biochemical parameters, such as the fermentation rate, pH distribution as well as O2 and CO2 concentration is of great importance. Nevertheless, also understanding of non-biological parameters, such as fluid dynamics (flow velocity profiles, circulation times), suspension mixing (homogeneity, location of dead zones and short-circuits) and heat transfer (temperature profiles), is necessary to analyze the impact of mixing on the biological system and also to improve the process efficiency. However, in most industrial scale applications the acquisition of these parameters and their spatial distributions in the large-scale vessels is hampered by the limited access to the process itself, because sensor mounting or cable connections are not feasible or desired. Therefore, state of the art instrumentation of such reactors is commonly limited to few spatial positions where it is doubtfully assumed that the measured parameters are representative for the whole reaction mixture. In this work, a concept of flow following sensor particles was developed. The sensor particles allow long-term measurement of spatially distributed process parameters in the chemically and mechanically harsh environments of agitated industrial vessels. Each sensor particle comprises of an onboard measurement electronics that logs the signals of measurement devices, namely temperature, absolute pressure (immersion depth, axial position) and 3D acceleration. The whole electronics is enclosed in a robust neutrally buoyant capsule (equivalent diameter 58.2 mm; sphericity 0.91), to allow free movement with the flow. The sensor particles were tested in pilot fermenters under comparable flow conditions of biogas fermenters. The experiments proved the applicability of the sensor particles and the robustness to resist the harsh environments of mixing processes. Moreover, the results show the capabilities of the sensor particles to monitor the internal conditions of the vessel correctly and thus deliver significant information about the flow regime. Therefore effects of liquid rheology, vessel geometry, impeller speed and axial impeller position on the macro-mixing process were properly detected. Evaluation of the impeller efficiency and the mixing processes was done based on mixing homogeneity, location of dead zones, axial velocity profiles, circulation time distributions as well as average circulation times, acceleration spectra and temperature profiles that were extracted from the measured data. Furthermore, it is shown, that parameters of mixing models such as circulation number, impeller head, PECLÉT-number and variance of suspended solid particles can be estimated from the measured data. The main achievement of this work is therefore the development and validation of instrumented flow followers for the investigation of macro-mixing effects in agitated vessels. The sensor particles show potential for employment to real applications such as biogas fermenters or large bioreactors and to monitor and improve the mixing and heating regimes.

Advanced monitoring of the spatio-temporal distribution of process parameters in large-scale vessels and containers such as stirred chemical or bioreactors offers a high potential for the investigation and further optimization of plants and embedded processes. This applies especially to large-scale fermentation biogas reactors where the process performance including the biological processes highly depend on mixing parameters of the complex bio-substrates. Sufficient mixing is a basic requirement for a stable operation of the process and adequate process performance. However, this condition is rarely met in agricultural biogas plants and the process efficiency is often reduced dramatically by inhomogeneities in the agitated vessels. Without a doupt, investigation and monitoring of biochemical parameters, such as the fermentation rate, pH distribution as well as O2 and CO2 concentration is of great importance. Nevertheless, also understanding of non-biological parameters, such as fluid dynamics (flow velocity profiles, circulation times), suspension mixing (homogeneity, location of dead zones and short-circuits) and heat transfer (temperature profiles), is necessary to analyze the impact of mixing on the biological system and also to improve the process efficiency. However, in most industrial scale applications the acquisition of these parameters and their spatial distributions in the large-scale vessels is hampered by the limited access to the process itself, because sensor mounting or cable connections are not feasible or desired. Therefore, state of the art instrumentation of such reactors is commonly limited to few spatial positions where it is doubtfully assumed that the measured parameters are representative for the whole reaction mixture. In this work, a concept of flow following sensor particles was developed. The sensor particles allow long-term measurement of spatially distributed process parameters in the chemically and mechanically harsh environments of agitated industrial vessels. Each sensor particle comprises of an onboard measurement electronics that logs the signals of measurement devices, namely temperature, absolute pressure (immersion depth, axial position) and 3D acceleration. The whole electronics is enclosed in a robust neutrally buoyant capsule (equivalent diameter 58.2 mm; sphericity 0.91), to allow free movement with the flow. The sensor particles were tested in pilot fermenters under comparable flow conditions of biogas fermenters. The experiments proved the applicability of the sensor particles and the robustness to resist the harsh environments of mixing processes. Moreover, the results show the capabilities of the sensor particles to monitor the internal conditions of the vessel correctly and thus deliver significant information about the flow regime. Therefore effects of liquid rheology, vessel geometry, impeller speed and axial impeller position on the macro-mixing process were properly detected. Evaluation of the impeller efficiency and the mixing processes was done based on mixing homogeneity, location of dead zones, axial velocity profiles, circulation time distributions as well as average circulation times, acceleration spectra and temperature profiles that were extracted from the measured data. Furthermore, it is shown, that parameters of mixing models such as circulation number, impeller head, PECLÉT-number and variance of suspended solid particles can be estimated from the measured data. The main achievement of this work is therefore the development and validation of instrumented flow followers for the investigation of macro-mixing effects in agitated vessels. The sensor particles show potential for employment to real applications such as biogas fermenters or large bioreactors and to monitor and improve the mixing and heating regimes.