High-resolution sampling of Neoproterozoic basin-floor to slope deposits in the Windermere Supergroup, east-central British Columbia indicates three distinct stratigraphically ascending clusters suggesting temporal changes in sediment provenance. Assemblage 1 has a characteristic northwestern Laurentia bimodal detrital zircon distribution with low εNd values, and intermediate to mafic igneous provenance as indicated by discriminant function analysis of major elements, low Th/Sc and Zr/Sc, high Co/Th, and high Cr abundance. This suggests derivation from western Laurentia basement rocks and Archean mafic and ultramafic suites from the Central Hearne province supracrustal belt. Assemblage 2, although compositionally similar, has an additional 655 Ma detrital zircon age population, higher εNd values, and felsic igneous to recycled provenance, suggesting a significant Neoproterozoic igneous rift-related source. Assemblage 3 marks the end of input from the juvenile ca. 655 Ma source and felsic igneous to recycled provenance, suggesting a return to western Laurentian cratonic sources.

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / The Sable Field constitutes a Basin Floor Channel (BFC) complex (E-BD reservoir) and a Basin Floor Fan (BFF) complex (E-CE reservoir). The reservoir sands were deposited during early-drift sedimentation in the Bredasdorp Basin. Paleo-current flows from the west, filling the basin with sediments that are eroded off the continental shelf (Agulhus Arch) and deposited on the base of the continental slope and basin floor. Turbidite flows off the Agulhus arch have deposited the Sable Fields reservoirs, where the larger channelized reservoir body takes an 80° bend off the continental slope and flows onto the basin floor. This 3-D reservoir highlights the reservoirs internal heterogeneity and complexity at the well bore and away from the well bore. Well tops tie wells to the 3-D seismic cube for; reservoir location and delineation, velocity modelling and subsequent conversion of the mapped surfaces from time to depth. Core and petro-physical analysis were used to outline the depositional facies within the investigated wells namely: E-BD5, E-BD2, E-BD1 and E-CE1. Correlation of depositional facies at the well bore with their corresponding seismic facies, allows for extrapolation of facies away from the well bore. The internal heterogeneity of the reservoir is outlined using an integrated methodology, which is based on log scale depositional features (channels, sheets, lobes) that are extrapolated to field scale (sand rich complex) using corresponding top and base reservoir seismic responses. The investigated thick region of sediment accumulation on: the continental slope, the base of the continental slope and basin floor is deposited on the 13AT1 early drift unconformity. The reservoir is outlined from the up-dip to the down-dip reaches of the field. Well E–BD5 has tapped into the proximal region (up-dip), with reservoir comprising of amalgamated channel sands that are deposited by laterally switching and stacking channelized sand bodies. Channel meander facies are seen in the upper portion of the reservoir, with massive channel fill in the lower parts. The channel fill constitutes a high net to gross with little to no lateral facies variations. This confined environment is dominated by amalgamated massive sands (on-axis) that are thinner bedded towards the banks of the channels (off-axis). A high degree of channel amalgamation has been interpreted in both up-dip wells E-BD5 and E-BD2. This channelized reservoir is at least 2km wide and 6km long, before the larger channel makes a rapid 80° change in paleo-current direction. This is possibly the result of basin floor topography and the stacking of previously deposited sand complexes which alter local sea floor topography. The vertical and lateral continuity of the channelised reservoir is generally excellent due to the high degree of channel amalgamation. The stacked channel complex constitutes a gross thickness of 76.2m (68.5m Net sand) in well E-BD5, and a gross thickness 25m (23m Net sand) in well E-BD2. Channel sands in well E-BD5 have an average porosity of 15% while the average porosity of channel sands in well E-BD2 (further down-dip) is 17%. This up-dip channelised region results in high amplitude reflections due to hydrocarbon charged sand juxtaposed against hemipelagic muds and silty levee facies. Well E-BD1 has tapped into a relatively confined sand complex deposited at the base of the continental slope. The amalgamated lobe and sheet sand complex is entirely encased in hemi pelagic mud. These reservoir sands are interpreted to be deposited in the Channel Lobe Transition Zone (CLTZ), thus the reservoir sands are interpreted to have a transitional depositional style (generally channelized sheets). The CLTZ region is thus dominated by both channel complex and lobe complex elements. The E-BD1 reservoir constitutes a number of amalgamated elements that result in a reservoir zone with an average porosity of 16.4%. These include: amalgamated thick bedded sheet sand (lobe axis) associated with deep depositional feeder channels; thin bedded sheet sands (off lobe axis), broad thin amalgamated lobe elements, layered thick bedded sand sheets and deep broad depositional channels. The low sinuosity broad depositional-channels and elongate lobe elements are expressed as lobate amalgamated sheets of sand which is up to 2-3km wide, 5km long and 30m thick (29.7m nett sand) at the well bore. Well E-CE1 has intersected 50m thick reservoir sand (50m nett sand) which constitutes the axis of a lobe complex where the reservoir zone has an average porosity of 14%. The sand rich complex is deposited on the unconfined basin floor. This reservoir complex constitutes amalgamated thick bedded lobe architectural elements which are massive in nature. The laterally continuous hydrocarbon charged lobe elements result in bright parallel seismic reflections. The amalgamated lobe complex is more than 5km wide. Sub-parallel horizons are attributed to the thin bedded off axis portion of the lobe complex where the net to gross is considerably less than the highly amalgamated axis of the lobe complex. The lobe complex has a moderate to good net to gross of 40-60%. The high aspect ratio of the lobe complex severely impacts the reservoirs vertical permeability, however horizontal permeability is quite good due to the extensive lateral continuity of good quality sheet sands. Based on the nature deep water architectural elements observed in this study, the internal heterogeneity of the Basin floor Fan and Basin floor channel complex’s may constitute an entire sand rich reservoir zone. All the sands may be in hydraulic communication if they are genetically related. These sands and stretch from the up-dip (wells E-BD5 & E-BD2) through to the transitional (E-BD2) and pinching out in the distal regions (E-CE1) on the basin floor. The seal constitutes a prominent shale horizon T13PW3 (8-10m thick) which is draped over the entire reservoir complex. This top seal is extrapolated from all the wells and correlated with seismic facies, thus outlining the lateral continuity and thickness variations of the top seal. This draped shale horizon exposes the thick axial portion of the amalgamated channel complex and amalgamated lobe complex.

An expansive panel of well exposed (periglacial) strata of the Upper Kaza Group permitted a detailed study of the stratal architecture of proximal basin floor deposits in the Neoproterozoic Windermere turbidite system. Detailed stratigraphic and petrographic analyses identified six lithofacies: poorly-sorted, clast-rich mudstone (F1), thin-bedded siltstone and mudstone (F2), thick-bedded, massive sandstone (F3), medium-scale, cross-stratified sandstone (F4), mudstone-clast breccia (F5), and medium-bedded turbidites (F6). The spatial distribution of these facies identify five architectural elements: heterolithic feeder channel deposits (FA1), thin-bedded intralobe turbidites (FA2), terminal splay deposits (FA3), distributary channel deposits (FA4), and isolated scours (FA5). FA 1-4 are genetically related and form the basic building blocks of large-scale basin floor depositional lobes. FA 5, which is isolated to the stratigraphic top of the study area, is interpreted to have formed in a base-of-slope setting, and its superposition on FA 1-4 suggests the long-term progradation of the Windermere turbidite system.

An expansive panel of well exposed (periglacial) strata of the Upper Kaza Group permitted a detailed study of the stratal architecture of proximal basin floor deposits in the Neoproterozoic Windermere turbidite system. Detailed stratigraphic and petrographic analyses identified six lithofacies: poorly-sorted, clast-rich mudstone (F1), thin-bedded siltstone and mudstone (F2), thick-bedded, massive sandstone (F3), medium-scale, cross-stratified sandstone (F4), mudstone-clast breccia (F5), and medium-bedded turbidites (F6). The spatial distribution of these facies identify five architectural elements: heterolithic feeder channel deposits (FA1), thin-bedded intralobe turbidites (FA2), terminal splay deposits (FA3), distributary channel deposits (FA4), and isolated scours (FA5). FA 1-4 are genetically related and form the basic building blocks of large-scale basin floor depositional lobes. FA 5, which is isolated to the stratigraphic top of the study area, is interpreted to have formed in a base-of-slope setting, and its superposition on FA 1-4 suggests the long-term progradation of the Windermere turbidite system.

An expansive panel of well exposed (periglacial) strata of the Upper Kaza Group permitted a detailed study of the stratal architecture of proximal basin floor deposits in the Neoproterozoic Windermere turbidite system. Detailed stratigraphic and petrographic analyses identified six lithofacies: poorly-sorted, clast-rich mudstone (F1), thin-bedded siltstone and mudstone (F2), thick-bedded, massive sandstone (F3), medium-scale, cross-stratified sandstone (F4), mudstone-clast breccia (F5), and medium-bedded turbidites (F6). The spatial distribution of these facies identify five architectural elements: heterolithic feeder channel deposits (FA1), thin-bedded intralobe turbidites (FA2), terminal splay deposits (FA3), distributary channel deposits (FA4), and isolated scours (FA5). FA 1-4 are genetically related and form the basic building blocks of large-scale basin floor depositional lobes. FA 5, which is isolated to the stratigraphic top of the study area, is interpreted to have formed in a base-of-slope setting, and its superposition on FA 1-4 suggests the long-term progradation of the Windermere turbidite system.

An expansive panel of well exposed (periglacial) strata of the Upper Kaza Group permitted a detailed study of the stratal architecture of proximal basin floor deposits in the Neoproterozoic Windermere turbidite system. Detailed stratigraphic and petrographic analyses identified six lithofacies: poorly-sorted, clast-rich mudstone (F1), thin-bedded siltstone and mudstone (F2), thick-bedded, massive sandstone (F3), medium-scale, cross-stratified sandstone (F4), mudstone-clast breccia (F5), and medium-bedded turbidites (F6). The spatial distribution of these facies identify five architectural elements: heterolithic feeder channel deposits (FA1), thin-bedded intralobe turbidites (FA2), terminal splay deposits (FA3), distributary channel deposits (FA4), and isolated scours (FA5). FA 1-4 are genetically related and form the basic building blocks of large-scale basin floor depositional lobes. FA 5, which is isolated to the stratigraphic top of the study area, is interpreted to have formed in a base-of-slope setting, and its superposition on FA 1-4 suggests the long-term progradation of the Windermere turbidite system.

Matrix-rich strata (20-70% mud matrix) have been increasingly recognized in deep-marine systems. These beds are thought to be deposited from mud-rich flows in a distal basin-floor setting; however they remain poorly understood, partly because details of lateral lithological changes are poorly known. In this study, matrix-rich strata are common in proximal basin-floor strata of the Neoproterozoic Windermere Supergroup. The objective of this thesis is to provide detailed description and interpretation of the lithological and mineralogical make-up and lateral facies trends of matrix-rich strata in in a unit 40 m thick and 800 m wide. Here, stratigraphic and petrographic analyses identified five facies: classic turbidites; sandstones; clayey sandstones; sandy claystones and fine-grained banded couplets, which laterally are arranged systematically from matrix-poor sandstones to thin-bedded turbidites. This lateral change is interpreted to represent a depositional continuum along the margins of an efflux jet that formed immediately downflow of an avulsion node.

Ancient basin-floor strata are exceptionally well exposed in the Neoproterozoic Windermere Supergroup in the southern Canadian Cordillera. Data from the Castle Creek outcrop, where strata of the upper Kaza Group crop out, and the Mt. Quanstrom outcrop, where the middle Kaza is exposed, form the main dataset for this study. The aim of this study is to describe and interpret the strata starting at the bed scale, followed by stratal element scale, lobe scale and ultimately fan scale. Strata of the Kaza Group comprise six sedimentary facies representing deposition from a variety of fluid and cohesive sediment gravity flows. These, in turn, populate seven stratal elements that are defined by their basal contact, cross-sectional geometry and internal facies distribution. The lithological characteristics of stratal elements vary little from proximal to more distal settings, but their relative abundance and stacking pattern do, which, then, forms the basis for modeling the internal architecture of lobes. Lobes typically comprise an assemblage of stratal elements, which then are systematically and predictably arranged in both space (along a single depositional transect) and time (stratigraphically upward). Lobes typically became initiated by channel avulsion. In the proximal part of the system scours up to several meters deep, several tens of meters wide are interpreted to have formed by erosion downflow of the avulsion node. Erosion also charged the flow with fine-grained sediment and on the lateral margins and downflow avulsion splays were deposited. Later flows then exploited the basin-floor topography and on the proximal basin-floor carved a feeder channel, which then fed a downflow depositional lobe. At the mouths of feeder channels flows became dispersed through a network of distributary channels that further downflow shallow and widen until eventually merging laterally in sandstone-rich terminal splays. During the lifespan of a single lobe the feeder channel remains fixed, but the distributary channel network and its associated terminal splays wander, causing them to stack and be intercalated laterally and vertically. Eventually an upstream avulsion terminates local sediment supply, causing a new lobe to be initiated elsewhere on the fan, and the process repeats.

This study investigates the lithological characteristics, and lateral and vertical facies trends of poorly understood, deep-marine matrix-rich sedimentary rocks. Two laterally extensive, well-exposed outcrops of slope and proximal basin floor deposits were investigated from the Neoproterozoic Windermere Supergroup. Significantly, matrix-rich beds have been found to undergo the same lateral trends (over ~200-650 m) in both outcrops. Initially, thicker, clayey sandstone transitions laterally to a bipartite bed with the development of an upper, planar-based, more matrix-rich unit. Further laterally, the basal unit progressively thins until it pinches out, and all that remains is the upper, more matrix-rich unit – a sandy claystone. It too thins and then pinches out. Draping the entire transect is a thin, matrix-poor structured unit overlain by a mudstone or claystone cap. These trends are interpreted to reflect a progressive but rapid lateral evolution of flow structure controlled primarily by particle settling, namely sand, from mud-rich avulsion-related flows.

Ancient basin-floor strata are exceptionally well exposed in the Neoproterozoic Windermere Supergroup in the southern Canadian Cordillera. Data from the Castle Creek outcrop, where strata of the upper Kaza Group crop out, and the Mt. Quanstrom outcrop, where the middle Kaza is exposed, form the main dataset for this study. The aim of this study is to describe and interpret the strata starting at the bed scale, followed by stratal element scale, lobe scale and ultimately fan scale. Strata of the Kaza Group comprise six sedimentary facies representing deposition from a variety of fluid and cohesive sediment gravity flows. These, in turn, populate seven stratal elements that are defined by their basal contact, cross-sectional geometry and internal facies distribution. The lithological characteristics of stratal elements vary little from proximal to more distal settings, but their relative abundance and stacking pattern do, which, then, forms the basis for modeling the internal architecture of lobes. Lobes typically comprise an assemblage of stratal elements, which then are systematically and predictably arranged in both space (along a single depositional transect) and time (stratigraphically upward). Lobes typically became initiated by channel avulsion. In the proximal part of the system scours up to several meters deep, several tens of meters wide are interpreted to have formed by erosion downflow of the avulsion node. Erosion also charged the flow with fine-grained sediment and on the lateral margins and downflow avulsion splays were deposited. Later flows then exploited the basin-floor topography and on the proximal basin-floor carved a feeder channel, which then fed a downflow depositional lobe. At the mouths of feeder channels flows became dispersed through a network of distributary channels that further downflow shallow and widen until eventually merging laterally in sandstone-rich terminal splays. During the lifespan of a single lobe the feeder channel remains fixed, but the distributary channel network and its associated terminal splays wander, causing them to stack and be intercalated laterally and vertically. Eventually an upstream avulsion terminates local sediment supply, causing a new lobe to be initiated elsewhere on the fan, and the process repeats.