Education, always important, is today more essential than ever if we are to perpetuate and improve our democratic way of life . The recognition of the importance of education in our society has resulted in planning at the national , state and local levels.

Development by man through the last half century has caused a number of changes in Bear Lake. These changes include the diversion of Bear River water into Bear Lake, the pumping of lake water back into the river, and the building of breakwaters and other obstructions along the shore of Bear Lake. The diversion of Bear River water into the lake has resulted in a yearly addition of an estimated 36,000 metric tons of calcium into the lake, which has caused the precipitation of an estimated minimum 90,000 metric tons of aragonite. The pumping of Bear Lake water back into the Bear River has resulted in an estimated yearly depletion of 10,900 metric tons of magnesium. This deficit may be compensated by the dissolution of detrital dolomite in the lake water. Equilibrated samples of sediment and distilled water had little resemblance to the composition of lake water. There was also no correlation between the composition of the equilibrated water and the cation exchange capacity or mineral composition of the sediment. A study of the dissolved oxygen content of littoral-zone waters indicated no development of vertical stratification of oxygen. There was also no statistically significant difference between the oxygen contents of waters on different sides of breakwaters.

Monitoring of Bear Lake was conducted in 1981 and 1982 to describe the current limnology and trophic state of the lake. The nutrientt loadings of various parameters were measured from April, 1981 through June, 1982. The rate of coprecipitation of phosphorus was determined for different initial phosphorus concentrations by use of non-algal assays. Algal bioassays with Selenastrum capricornutum were used to determine the reduction in potential algal biomass as a result of the coprecipitation of phosphorus. The lake exhibit-.ed chemical characteristics indicative of mesotrophy or eutrophy. Total phosphorus values averaged 11μg/1 for 1981 and 20 μg/1 for 1982. A hypolimnetic accumulation of phosphorus was also not:ed for the stratified periods. Addittionally, hypolimnetic oxygen deficit values were indicative of mesotrophy in 1981 and eutrophy in 1982. The chlorophyll concentrations were characteristic of oligotrophic conditions during both years however. Phosphorus was found to be limiting production approximately 85% of the year. The Bear River Contributed approximately 60% of the total phosphorus loading to the lake in 1981 and 50% in 1982. Overall, the total phophorus loading increased 195% between the dry year, 1981, and the wet year, 1982. Vollenweider's (1976) phosphorus loading model described the loading to Bear Lake as indicative of mesotrophic conditions in 1981 and eutrophic conditions in 1982. Calcium and magnesium concentrations fluctuated widely throughout the year. The Mg:Ca molar ratio varied from 1:1 in the spring to 3.5:1 in the fall. Total hardness values did not vary in response to the changing ionic concentrations and this was attributed to preferential replacement of precipitated calcium by the Bear River inflow. Non-algal assays quantified the removal of phosphorus by coprecipitation at increasing initial phosphorus by concentration. The rate of removal initial decreased substantially as phosphorus levels increased with a shift in reaction order from second order to first order noted at approximately 50 μg/1. Predictive models were derived from the initial assays and verified with data from a separate experiment which use filtered Bear Lake water. The models accurately predicted the amount of phosphorus removed by coprecipitation at all phosphorus levels. Algal bioassays in synthetic Bear Lake and soft-water media were used to evaluate the efficiency of the coprecipitation mechanism when in competition with algae for phosphorus. An average reduction in biomass of 40% was noted between the media at similar nutrient levels.

The phytoplankton, or plant plankton, live in the open water throughout their life cycle and obtain the necessary nutrients from the water. They are important contributors to the total plant production of lakes and ponds.

In the past, several projects have been conducted at Bear Lake, Utah-Idaho, by the Utah State University through the Wildlife Resources Department, in conjunction with the Utah and Idaho fish and game departments, the Fish and Wildlife Service , and the National Science Foundation. These projects have dealt primarily with limnology, limnological techniques, fish life histories, fish movements, and bottom fauna in the pelagic and benthic areas of the lake. Subsequently, a littoral zone project was set up to study some of the ecological aspects of the shallow waters of Bear Lake, and some of the influences that this area may have on the entire lake.

No description available.

A study of the mineralogy of a suite of specimens, collected by Dr.C.Riley from the Bonanza silver deposit, has been made. Particular attention is paid to the silver mineralization and the origin of the dendritic structure. A brief examination of the wall rock alteration is included. The mineralogy of the deposit is relatively simple, consisting of the following metallic minerals in their order of abundance: native silver, magnetite, hematite, tetrahedrite, argentite, chalcopyrite, and an unknown mineral. Pitchblende and cobalt-nickel minerals are absent. Magnetite and hematite are restricted to the wall rock and are not associated with the other metallic minerals. The magnetite is believed to be of pyrometasomatic origin and related to a granodiorite intrusion, while the other metallic and gangue minerals are considered to be of hydrothermal origin. The gangue minerals consist of quartz, sericite, and carbonate. Ninety-five percent of the native silver occurs as dendrites and the other five percent as replacement of tetrahedrite and chalcopyrite. Core replacement by the silver is well developed. The dendritic structure of the silver is inherited from quartz through replacement. In a quartz gangue this structure appears to be controlled by rows of specially oriented, doubly terminated, quartz prisms, while in a sericitic gangue the euhedral quartz grains, arranged in a rude dendritic pattern, are the controlling factor. The mineral deposits of the Echo Bay area are compared with similar deposits throughout the world. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

The systematic status of whitefishes endemic to Bear lake, Utah-Idaho, has remained tenuous since their original description. Clarification of this problem was the major objective of the present study. The general approach was an integrated one, including examination of morphological, biochemical and ecological parameters; artificial hybrids were produced and compared with questionable groups from the natural population. Morphological analysis revealed five forms of Bear Lake whitefishes Prosopium gemmiferum (Bonneville cisco) and P. abyssicola (Bear lake whitefish) were well differentiated from other forms and were treated as originally described. The P. spilonotus (Bonneville whitefish) group, however, was found to be made up of two morphologically distinct populations, referred to as P. spilonotus (small form) and P. spilonotus (large form). The fifth group referred to as P. gemmiferum-like (represented by only five specimens) was intermediate between P. gemmiferum and either P. spilonotus (small form) or P. abyssicola and was hypothesized to be of hybrid origin. Multiple discriminant function analysis of the four major groups and P. williamsoni (mountain whitefish) (Logan River) confirmed morphological differentiation between forms. Hybridization studies among Bear Lake Prosopium and P. williamsoni involved 50 homo - and heterospecific crosses (17 combinations). Of 12 experimental hybrid combinations attempted, all those involving simultaneously ripe specimens of two groups (five crosses) showed maximum fertilization success equalling that of pure crosses. no evidence that interspecific crosses are less successful than conspecific crosses, with the possible exception of P. williamsoni ♀ x P. gemmiferum ♂ (W x G), was obtained. Culture methods were developed and morphological comparisons made. Origin of P. gemmiferum-like hybrids in the lake population was not consistently explained by morphological comparison of known P. spilonotus (small form) ♀ x P. gemmiferum ♂ (S x G) hybrids or P abyssicola ♀ x P. gemmiferum ♂ (A x G) hybrids; morphometric characters were more like S x G hybrids while meristic characters were more closely associated with A x G hybrids. Based on evidence available, no definitive statement could be made concerning the origin of P. gemmiferum-like hybrids except that they are hybrids among combinations of P. gemmiferum and either P. spilonotus (small form) or P. abyssicola. no known hybrid explained the origin of either group of P. spilonotus. Electrophoretic analysis of general proteins and several enzyme systems of various tissues showed much similarity among Bear Lake Prosopium; only P. williamsoni was totally unique. Biochemical evidence did not support or refute separate consideration of the two forms of P. spilonotus but did establish that neither were phenotypic variants of P. williamsoni. Ecological characteristics of Bear Lake Prosopium revealed important distinctions between forms. Growth histories of P. abyssicola, P. spilonotus (small form) and P. spilonotus (large form) showed pronounced differences. Distinct differences in growth and in age and size at maturity of forms of P.. spilonotus provided further evidence supporting their separate consideration. Spatial overlap of spawning activities was marked between forms of P. spilonotus and P. gemmiferum; P. abyssicola was well separated spatially. Temporally, slight overlap was observed between ripe females of one group and ripe males of the succeeding group to spawn. the only observation of the simultaneous occurrence of ripe females of two forms was between P. spilonotus (large form) and P. spilonotus (small form); in this instance, the number of ripe females of each form was extremely small. No evidence of mass hybridization among forms was observed. A combination of temporal, spatial and ethological premating isolating mechanisms are thought to be important in reproductive isolation of Bear lake whitefishes while postmating mechanisms are nonfunctional with the possible exception of hybrid sterility. Morphological and ecological analyses, combined with results of experimental hybridization, provided abundant evidence supporting separate recognition of the two forms of P,. spilonotus. Karyotypes of P. gemmiferum, P abyssicola and P. spilonotus (small form) have been determined (Booke, 1974) and are unique for each species. If the karyotype of P. spilonotus (large form) is found to also be unique, there should be no question that the two forms of P. spilonotus represent distinct species. Final clarification of the taxanomic status of these forms will not come until karyotype data is available; however, based upon present evidence, tentative recognition of a new species is recommended.

Zooplankton of the littoral and limnetic zones of Bear Lake, Idaho- Utah, were collected over a 17 -month period. Twenty-three species of zooplankton were recorded, as well as nine other species represented by both flora and fauna. At the time of sampling 17 physical and chemical parameters were a lso measured. Methods of analysis for the plankton and the environment are described and discussed. The objectives of this project were fourfold: To establish a record of the current zooplankton population before changes due to the increase o f organic nutrients occur. To compile a qualitative and quantitative standard against which future populations can be compared. To assess the source and the amount of present nutrients which are being contributed to the lake. To investigate the effect the present addition of nutrients is having on zooplankton productivity. The physical and chemical analysis of the Bear Lake waters showed a number of interesting trends. The measurement of total dissolved solids, when compared with previous investigations, showed a decline: i.e., it appears that a great dilution had taken place in the lake waters since 1912. The measurement of salinity revealed two chemical patterns in Bear Lake waters. First: chloride, sulfate, sodium, and potassium showed a decrease in concentration on a long-term basis. Second, calcium showed a slight rise with a leveling off, and magnesium showed a decline with a leveling off over the same period. Calcium is being precipitated as calcium carbonate, and the removal of sodium, potassium , sulfate, magnesium, and chloride is achieved through the pumping of lake waters outside the basin. Nitrogen was measured with respect to three of its forms--ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate. Ammonia was comparatively evenly distributed throughout the water column at all depths. The cycling of ammonia appeared to follow that of known oligotrophic lakes. Generally, the nitrite was low in the limnetic and allochthonous waters and higher in the littoral zone. The littoral and limnetic water exhibited lower nitrate levels than the allochthonous sources. This is believed to be due to the prevailing land use patterns. The production of cattle and sheep and the cultivation of extensively fertilized crops appear to give the most plausible answer. The littoral waters appeared to be higher with respect to ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate, in the microhabitats that are natural, and in others that are man-made: i.e., harbors, breakwaters, and shore based homes. The distribution of phosphate-phosphorous in the waters varied little during the study. The mean values were quite similar for the littoral and limnetic waters. The allochthonous waters had approximately four times the phosphate concentration of the lake waters. The chemical analysis of the bottom muds revealed that phosphorous as phosphate and as P2O5 were significantly higher in concentration between the 50- and 200-foot contours than at lesser depths. The low levels of soluble phosphate and the slight variation encountered in the water column seem to be related to the orthograde nature of the oxygen curve found in the lake. Relationships between chemical analysis and the zooplankton associated within a particular station in the lake were completed by correlation and regression analysis. Associations between independent and dependent variables apparently defined various environmental preferences or requirements necessary for the maintenance of particular individual species. In light of the basic taxonomic considerations these proposals appear to be within reason. Individual correlation and regression analysis were completed for three lake zones investigated: littoral, limnetic, and the haptobenthos. Individual analysis of variances were completed within the three Bear Lake zones in order to assess the affect of habitat on the plankton population. The statistical analyses were compared to the means for these several stations within one zone, and biological and statistical explanations were made. Supplementary water quality analyses were conducted in order to explain some abnormal chem1cal and biological results. Bacteriological testing of the Bear Lake waters revealed that a large percentage of the littoral and allied limnetic zone presented definite problems with respect to water quality and public use.

Detailed geologic mapping and subsurface study of late Pleistocene and Holocene sediments in northern Bear Lake Valley show at least four episodes of deposition of fluvial, marsh, bay, and lacustrine sediments. from oldest to youngest, these are the Ovid, Liberty, Wardboro, and Lifton episodes. These episodes are substantially different than those proposed by previous investigators. The informal term Bear Lake Formation is formally redefined here as the Bear Lake Group, and includes the newly defined Ovid Formation, Liberty Formation, lanark Formation, and Rainb= Gravel. The overlying Wardboro Loess, also defined here, provides a probably age of 11,000 to 8,000 years B. P. for widespread post-Wisconsinan deposition of loess in northern Utah and southern Idaho. The Ovid Episode began prior to 27,400 years B. P ., d=ing a warm, dry, climatic interval. Sediments deposited during the early part of the Ovid Episode include marsh and bay deposits of the l=er part of the Ovid Formation in northern Bear Lake Valley , probably similar deposits of the lCN~er part of the lanark Formation west of the Bloomington Scarp (on the west side of Bear Lake Valley), and marshy deposits beneath Bear Lake in southern Bear Lake Valley. West-sloping pediments at the north end of Bear Lake Valley, between Bennington and Georgetown, Idaho, and old alluvial fans, also may have formed at this time. The northern outlet of the valley was near 5990 feet at this time . Downfaulting along the Bear L3ke fault zone on the east side of Bear L3ke Valley, and prol:able eastward tilting affected the central valley during the Ovid Episode. At this time, deposition of deep-water carbonates, beneath Bear L3ke, prol:ably began in southern Bear L3ke Valley. Later, cooler- and Jl'Oister clirratic conditions of a Late Pleistocene glacial interval (Pinedale?) resulted in a shall& extension of this lake into northern Bear L3ke Valley during the Liberty Episode. Progradational, shallow-water sand deposits of the Liberty Formation show that Bear Lake attained its most recent maximum areal extent at this time. Simultaneous deposition of the Rainbow Gravel at the entrance of the Bear River into the valley, near Dingle, Idaho, and of the sandy, deltaic upper part of the Lanark Formation along the west side of the valley, reflected the increased addition of sediments, probably due to glaciation and higher stream discharges. The valley outlet was at an altitude near 5945 feet. Downcutting of the valley outlet and waning moist climatic conditions led to exposure of lake beds, increased effectiveness of the wind, and deposition of the Wardboro Loess during the Wardboro Episode. This loess prol:ably is correlative with the Niter Loess in Thatcher Basin (Gem and Gentile valleys, Idaho). It is slightly more than 8,000 C14 years old, and probably less than 11,000 year old. Recurrent faulting along the east margin (Bear Lake fault zone) and west margin (Bloomington Scarp) of the valley at the onset of the Lifton Episode led to a brief re- expansion of Bear Lake, and then a recession southward to its present position near 5923 feet. During this time, a series of beach ridges, successively younger southward, and undifferentiated sediments of marsh, bay, and stream origin, formed in northern Bear Lake Valley. The present valley outlet is near 5873 feet.