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The hermaphroditic fish, Rivulus marmoratus, is the only vertebrate known to reproduce by internal self-fertilization; this process results in populations of homozygous clones. Most natural populations consist entirely of hermaphrodites, but phenotypically distinct, fertile males occur at frequencies up to 24% on some islands off the coast of Belize. The presence of large numbers of males in natural populations prompted this study to determine if males are involved in the mating system. The occurrence of cross-fertilization between males and hermaphrodites was determined by surveying progeny of field-caught hermaphrodites for non-segregation or segregation of DNA fingerprint markers as an indication of the homozygosity or heterozygosity of the parent. DNA fingerprinting revealed no segregation of markers among the offspring in 12 of 12 Florida and Brazil laboratory lines and in 5 of 30 Belize Cay broods. These data indicate that the hermaphrodite parents were homozygous; thus, no detectable outcrossing has occurred in these populations. However, DNA fingerprinting revealed segregation of markers among the offspring in 25 of 30 Belize Cay broods. Twenty-four of these broods were from the island of Twin Cays. An average of 30% of the parental bands were segregating among the offspring; values ranged from 0.09 to 0.50. Offspring were, on average, 8% dissimilar to one another; values ranged from 2.08% to 15.09%. These data suggest that the 25 hermaphrodite parents were heterozygous; thus, males are involved in the mating system in some Belize Cay populations. These data are the first evidence of outcrossing in this species. / Master of Science

Forces of development are constantly affecting rural communities in the expanding world economic system. My research with the Garifuna fishermen of Hopkins, Belize, demonstrates the systematic articulations among national export-oriented economic development strategies, rural impoverishment, and environmental degradation. Within a political ecology framework, I document the impact of a shrimp trawling program on the subsistence fishermen of Hopkins, Belize, its impact on the effective marine environment of the subsistence fishermen, and their responses to it. The data gathered for this micro-level study are based on a total of six weeks of on-site, participant observer research in Hopkins on two separate trips. Taped interviews with approximately three-quarters of the active fishermen of Hopkins, along with interviews with other Hopkins residents and government fisheries officials, fishery production and export records from three sources, (the World Bank, the Belize Department of Statistics and the Belize Department of Fisheries) and my own observations provide the documentation of the trawlers impact on the marine environment and the subsistence fishermen of Hopkins. Much of the work of other geographers on Third World development issues shows that rural communities have suffered from political, economic, environmental, and cultural factors that threaten their way of life. My work reveals the current situation in Hopkins, Belize, as part of this process. / Master of Science

Image analysis was used to measure basal areas of selected colonies of Montastraea annularis and Porites astreoides, following the colonies over a three-year period from 2002 to 2004. Existing digital images of permanently-marked quadrats in the Caye Caulker Marine Reserve, Belize, were selected based on image quality and availability of images of selected quadrats for all three years. Annual growth rates were calculated from the basal-area measurements. Mean growth rates (radial skeletal extension) for M. annularis and P. astreoides were 0.02 cm yr-1 and -0.20 cm yr-1, respectively. Basal area measurements demonstrated a large degree of variability. Increases were approximately balanced by declines giving the impression of stasis. By removing negative values and correcting by 25% to allow for comparison with vertical growth rates, mean values increased to ~0.5 cm yr-1 for M. annularis and ~0.8 cm yr-1 for P. astreoides. Basal area as a growth measure was compared to methods used in earlier studies. A new growth index based on basal area and perimeter was proposed and modeled. This growth index can be useful for reporting growth measured from basal areas and comparable other methods. The index also measures negative growth, or mortality, which conventional methods cannot do.

A wealth of research into medical and healing traditions of Maya communities has been conducted. Previous research has also explored unique conceptions of health and disorder held by Maya peoples. This study adds the voices of Q’eqchi’ Maya healers of southern Belize to this accruing research. Working from Indigenous research paradigms, a nine-month ethnographic study with six practicing members of the Q’eqchi’ Healers Association (QHA) of Belize occurred. The QHA is an endogenous grass-roots association formed in 1999 to preserve Maya medical knowledge and healing practices. In collaboration with the QHA members, this research focused on the healers’ conceptualizations and treatments of mental illness and disorders. During ethnographic research, 94 in-depth qualitative interviews with the six members of the QHA and 43 observations of healing encounters occurred. Twenty-six additional interviews were held with patients and participation in other healing ceremonies and cultural gatherings frequently took place. From the analysis of these data, there are 17 different mental illnesses and disorders recognized by the Q’eqchi’ healers that fall within one of four broad “narrative genres.” The main argument of the dissertation is that these “narrative genres” are epistemological structures that the healers use to “read” and “emplot” specific cases of illness to which they attend. Since narrative theory and research focuses largely on individual patient experiences, this study expands contemporary theory by looking at the Q’eqchi’ healers medical epistemology through a narrative lens. It is argued that a deeper understanding of Q’eqchi’ conceptions of mental illness and disorder can also aid dialogues between the “traditional” healers and biomedical practitioners working within the Belize Ministry of Health while also improving the treatment of Q’eqchi’ patients. This research adds to the areas of applied ethnography, narrative theory, Indigenous epistemology, cultural psychiatry, medical anthropology, and medical pluralism.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of California, Riverside, 2009. / Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 215-235). Issued in print and online. Available via ProQuest Digital Dissertations.

Anecdotal reports, flipper tag returns, satellite migration paths, and above-water and net surveys have identified an important foraging area for sea turtles in the Robinson Point area, 12 kilometers southwest of Belize City. Visual observations confirmed that sea turtles were actively foraging at Robinson Point. Sixteen 30 minute visual observations from stationary and drifting boats made 132 sea turtle sightings from October 2007 through January 2008, with a maximum of 40 sightings made in one survey. In-water capture methodology tested the traditional turtle net, which captured 14 turtles in 63 sets for a success rate of only 22%. There were 11 green turtles captured during the migratory months from April through October, and three hawksbill turtles were captured during non-migratory months, November through March, indicating that both species were resident at Robinson Point. No loggerheads, adult males, or juvenile turtles were captured, but anecdotal reports confirmed presence. Size range for captured hawksbills was between 63.7 - 80.4 cm SCLnn and between 70.9 - 91.5 cm SCLnn for green turtles. There were two recaptured turtles. One was a nesting hawksbill tagged in Mexico in 2008 and recaptured at Robinson Point in 2009, and the other was a sub adult hawksbill that was captured at Robinson Point in 2008 and recaptured in 2013 in Nicaragua. There was a small growth of fibropapilloma on one green turtle. Habitat surveys suggest benthic communities are more diverse than previously described consisting of prey items sought by sea turtles. Geomorphology of the Robinson Point area is equally diverse and provides shelter for resident turtles. Proposed boundaries for a turtle conservation zone at Robinson Point and an internesting zone to protect turtles at Belize premier hawksbill nesting beach at Gales Point, are linked to existing protected areas, and would facilitate protection of sea turtles not only in Belize, but also throughout the Caribbean.

The designation of state and private protected areas around the world has been increasing over the past years. Belize is not an exception to this reality. To date more than 103 protected areas have been recognized into the National Protected Areas System of Belize (NPAS). Private protected areas (PPA) did not become part of Belize’s NPAS until 2015. But long before its legislation, private protected areas have been contributing to conservation and development in Belize. The Golden Stream Corridor Preserve (GSCP) is one of Belize’s exemplary PPA which advocates for conservation through the promotion of sustainable livelihood development and community empowerment. Using the co-evolution model by Pretzsch et al. (2014) as a conceptual framework, direct use values and benefits of the GSCP are assessed to gain insight into its social ecological system. A single case (embedded) case study design was used to execute this assessment at three buffering communities: Medina Bank, Golden Stream and Indian Creek. A total of 60 households, representing 10% of household leaders in each community were interviewed using a semi structured questionnaire. Community leaders were also interviewed to discover customary rules relating to resource use and the history of each community. The direct use value assessment revealed that the GSCP only contributes to values associated with tourism and employment. These values were disproportionately distributed across buffering communities; with Indian Creek perceiving all values associated with tourism, and Golden Stream from employment. Medina Bank saw no direct use values from the GSCP. Community forests and lands were found to be the exclusive source of direct use values associated with the utilization of forest products. Sustainable livelihood development opportunities and community empowerment were the most reported benefits arising from the management of the GSCP. The adoption and contribution of livelihood strategies were however met with positive and negative criticism by community members. Results from this evaluation epitomizes the importance of SES thinking in protected areas. Customary rules of resource use have contributed positively to the integrity of the GSCP. The impending threat of land use change and population growth at buffering communities calls for the creation of enabling environments for the adoption of sustainable livelihood through community participation, consultation, monitoring and evaluation.:CHAPTER ONE 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Research question and justification 2 CHAPTER TWO 2. Theoretical and conceptual framework 4 2.2 Ecosystem service approach in protected areas 7 2.3 Emergence of private protected areas: global status, definition, benefits and downsides 11 2.4 Social ecological co-evolution: a conceptual Framework 13 CHAPTER THREE 3.1 National Context: protected areas in Belize 17 3.2 Local context: The Golden Stream Corridor Preserve 19 3.3 Case study approach 23 3.4 Data collection 25 3.5 Data analysis 29 3.6 Ethical considerations 32 CHAPTER FOUR 4. Embedded case studies . 34 4.1 Case study 1: Medina Bank Village 46 4.2 Case study 2: Golden Stream Village 48 4.3 Case study 3: Indian Creek Village 62 CHAPTER FIVE 5. Consolidating and comparing the embedded cases CHAPTER SIX 6. Implications of findings for management 92 CHAPTER SEVEN 7. Conclusions, limitations and outlook 102 Limitation 103 Outlook 104 REFERENCES 108 ANNEXS 115

Large carnivores play many vital biological, economic, and conservation roles, however, their biological traits (low population densities, cryptic behavior) make them difficult to monitor. Pumas have been particularly difficult to study because the lack of distinctive markings on their coats prevents individual identification, precluding mark-recapture and other similar analyses. Further, compared to temperate areas, research on the interspecific interactions of Central American felids is particularly lacking. I used single- and multi-season, single-species occupancy models and two-species co-occurrence models to analyze camera trapping and habitat data collected at eight study sites across Belize. Puma occupancy was positively influenced by jaguar trap success, understory density, canopy cover, and human trap success, and negatively influenced by stream density. Jaguar trap success was the best predictor of where pumas occurred, while prey species were not found to influence puma occupancy. Mean occupancy was 0.740 (0.013) and ranged from 0.587 (0.042) to 0.924 (0.030). Over time, puma occupancy rates were generally high (> 0.90) and stable. Puma occupancy was higher in logged areas, suggesting that current levels of natural resource extraction at those sites were not detrimental to the species. Co-occurrence modeling showed little evidence for interactions between the carnivores, suggesting that jaguars may be acting as an umbrella species and that conservation efforts directed at jaguars are likely to benefit the other carnivores, including pumas. Overall, these findings are positive for puma conservation, but human-induced land use change is expanding and further monitoring will give us insight into how pumas respond to human encroachment. / Master of Science

Ce mémoire porte sur l’étude de l’orientation des sépultures mayas de la Période Classique (250 - 900/1000 de notre ère). Il s’agit d’une recherche visant à comprendre le choix d’une orientation sud des défunts dans la vallée du Belize et ses environs. L’intérêt porté à cette région vient du fait que l’orientation sud des défunts est un phénomène que l’on retrouve rarement sur le territoire maya, sauf à cet endroit. Alors que la présence de la cardinalité en lien avec la cosmovision maya est attestée dans l’architecture, le plan des sites, la forme et la fonction des divinités, dans l’agriculture, etc., il est plutôt rare qu’elle soit analysée dans les études du traitement funéraire. Ainsi, le but de cette recherche est de saisir l’ampleur de la pratique de l’orientation sud des défunts sur le territoire maya, de comprendre son origine et sa ou ses possible(s) signification(s). Les données des sépultures de la Période Classique de cinq sites de la vallée du Belize (Baking Pot, Barton Ramie, Blackman Eddy, Cahal Pech et Xunantunich), de quatre sites du Plateau Vaca (Minanha, Pacbitun, Mountain Cow et Caracol) et de trois sites situés à l’ouest (Holmul) et au nord (San José et Altun Ha) de ces deux régions sont compilées. Les résultats révèlent que le coeur de cette pratique se trouve dans la vallée du Belize, bien qu’une orientation sud des défunts ait été retrouvée partout. Cette pratique semble apparaitre à la fin de la Période Préclassique et les analyses ne révèlent pas de lien entre l’orientation sud et certaines variables (âge, sexe, position du défunt). Finalement, on arrive à la conclusion qu’il est possible que cette orientation sud des défunts soit en lien avec le passage des défunts dans l’inframonde et que cela forme un choix culturel local en lien avec le statut et l’identité du défunt. / This thesis focuses on the study of the orientation of Classic Maya burials (AD 250 - 900/1000). The research is directed towards the understanding of the presence of the south orientation of burials in the Belize Valley and its surroundings. While the presence of the cardinality of the Mayan worldview is established as reflected in the architecture, settlement patterns, form and function of divine agents, agriculture, etc., it is rarely analyzed in funerary treatment studies. Thus, the aim of this research is to understand the extent of the practice of the south orientation of the deceased on the Mayan territory, to understand its origin, and its possible signification(s). Data from the Classic burials of five Belize Valley sites (Baking Pot, Barton Ramie, Blackman Eddy, Cahal Pech, and Xunantunich), four Vaca Plateau sites (Minanha, Pacbitun, Mountain Cow, and Caracol), and three sites located west (Holmul) and north (San José and Altun Ha) of the two previous regions have been compiled. The results reveal that the heart of this practice lies in the Belize Valley, although a south orientation of the deceased was found everywhere. This practice seems to appear at the end of the Preclassic Period and analysis revealed no link between south orientation and certain variables (age, sex, position of the deceased). Finally, it was found that it is possible that south orientation of the deceased is connected with the passage of the deceased in the underworld, and that it is a local choice in connection with the status and the identity of the deceased.