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Many Neotropical felid species, such as jaguars, are threatened with extinction due to habitat fragmentation and/or human persecution. Human activities around protected areas in Belize, Central America, are increasing and so are levels of human-felid conflict. Potential consequences of this conflict are an increase in stress impacting health, diet shifts, or heightening of animal aggression. The goal of this work was to assess the effects of human-modified habitats on native felids by comparing fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations, endoparasite species richness (ESR), and diet using non-invasive scat sampling in a protected forest vs. surrounding non-protected areas in Belize. Field studies relying on non-invasive fecal hormone monitoring are subject to potential hormone degradation in samples exposed to the environment. Therefore I conducted immunoassay and environmental validations for measuring FGM in jaguars (Panthera onca). In the field, I collected scat using a detector dog, identified samples using DNA, retrieved parasite propagules with a flotation technique, and identified prey remains by morphology. I detected five felids: jaguar, puma, ocelot, jaguarundi and domestic cat. FGM concentrations were higher in pumas and jaguarundis than in the other felids. I found no livestock remains in felid scats. ESR was similar across felid species. Domestic cats were found only in human-modified areas. This results provide a baseline on adrenal activity, prey consumption, and endoparasites in felids of Belize. These findings could be used for comparisons to populations thought to be affected by human activities across Belize and in neighboring countries. / Master of Science

The mesopredator release hypothesis suggests that small carnivore populations are negatively affected by competition with larger carnivore species; this could hinder the conservation of mesopredators in areas where large top-carnivores are prioritized. I investigated the ecology of ocelots in Belize and examined the role of mesopredator release in the neotropical carnivore guild to determine if ocelots are limited by competition with jaguars and pumas. I conducted remote camera surveys and sampled habitat within four protected areas: three broadleaf sites and one pine forest site. I measured ocelot activity and habitat-use with respect to the activity of jaguars and pumas at one broadleaf site and one pine forest site; additionally, I calculated estimates of ocelot and jaguar densities within those two sites. Ocelot presence was positively related to jaguar activity in the pine forest and to both jaguar and puma activity in the broadleaf forest. There were few relationships with habitat characteristics; however, in the broadleaf site, ocelot activity was positively related to road width and large avian prey activity. Both jaguar and ocelot densities were low in the pine forest and higher in the broadleaf site. Preliminary findings from the remaining two sites suggest that future results may be similar to those from the first two sites analyzed. I conclude that ocelot populations are not negatively affected by jaguars and that a negative effect of pumas is unlikely. Results imply that mesopredator release does not limit ocelot populations in these areas. / Master of Science

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Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Esta dissertação levanta uma análise comparativa dos processos políticos que antecederam a construção de duas pontes transnacionais nas Américas: a ponte sobre o Rio Tacutu, que liga as cidades de Lethem (Região 9, Guyana) e Bonfim (Roraima, Brasil); e a ponte sobre o Rio Hondo, que liga as cidades de Santa Elena (Corozal, Belize) e Subteniente López (Quintana Roo, México). Enquanto isso, o estudo inserese no corpo mais amplo de pesquisas que analisam o processo de integração das Américas através do uso de infraestrutura física. Além disso, a pesquisa aborda a maneira em que poderes emergentes usam infraestrutura para propósito de projeção de poder regional nos seus entornos geopolíticos, particularmente, em relação aos seus vizinhos contíguos menores. Esta análise realiza-se no contexto histórico do reconhecimento da necessidade de fomentar integração entre os países do sul global e de países de tradições coloniais diferentes; e mais ainda, visa alcançar essa meta com o uso da infraestrutura física. Metodologicamente, é um estudo interpretativo quantitativo das fontes bibliográficas e discursos executivos, utilizando o método comparativo para deduzir modos de interação entre dois poderes emergentes latinoamericanos e dois países relativamente pequenos e isolados do Caribe anglófono. Pode-se concluir que as duas pontes foram construídas e inauguradas dentro de projetos mais amplos para integração regional, promovidos pelo México e Brasil, para as regiões imediatas de influência geopolítica, facilitado por fortes vínculos bilaterais históricos no campo de segurança de território; e completado pela transição contemporânea dos países caribenhos na busca para novos parceiros internacionais, frente à perda de viabilidade de vínculos tradicionais. / This dissertation carries out a comparative analysis of the political processes leading up the construction of two transnational bridges in the Americas; these are the Takutu River Bridge linking Lethem, Region 9, Guyana and Bonfim, Roraima, Brazil; and the Hondo River Bridge linking Santa Elena, Cozoral, Belize and Subteniente López, Quintana Roo, Mexico. In so doing, the study is inserted in a wider body of researches that analyse the process of integration in the Americas through the use of physical infrastructure. The research further highlights how emerging powers use infrastructure as a means of regional power projection in their geopolitical spaces, particularly as it pertains to smaller contiguous neighbours. This analysis takes place in the historical context of countries of the global south and of different colonial traditions, recognising the need to foster integration, and achieve advancement in this regard through infrastructure. Methodologically, it is an interpretive qualitative study of bibliographical sources and executive speeches, using the comparative method to deduce modes of interaction between two emerging Latin American powers and two relatively small and isolated continental countries of the Anglophone Caribbean. It may be concluded that the two bridges were successfully constructed and inaugurated as part of wider projects for regional integration fostered by Mexico and Brazil for their regions of immediate geopolitical influence, and aided by historically strong bilateral relations in the area of territorial integrity and further, the contemporary transitioning in the search by Caribbean countries for new international partners as old linkages become less viable.

The focus of this thesis is an analysis of a sample of dentition collected from the Postclassic Maya site of Santa Rita Corozal in Northern Belize. The goal of this study is to determine what the presence (or absence) of Linear Enamel Hypoplasia (LEH) can demonstrate about the general health (i.e. stress, disease, nutrition, and weaning age) and social status of a single subset of the Late Postclassic (900-1500 CE) Maya living at Santa Rita Corozal. Specifically, this thesis focuses on dentition of thirteen individuals from a large Postclassic platform group. The sample consists of sub-adult and adult female dentition from individuals that are associated with the same relative time period (Late Postclassic). The question being addressed in this thesis is: why has LEH presented in these individuals? These samples will also be compared to other studies involving LEH throughout the Maya area, in both similar and dissimilar environments. The preponderance of female and sub-adult remains also makes this platform group a very interesting topic of study for LEH in the Maya area, as it is unusual to find a concentrated area of individuals such as these. iv Importantly, the results of this study show that there is no significant relationship between general levels of stress and the overall status of an individual. Measurements collected from the LEH affected teeth demonstrate that all of the LEH episodes occurred before the age of 6. The mean age for the teeth sampled that show signs of LEH is 3.5 years, which is consistent with theories pertaining to the weaning age of the Maya during concomitant time periods. However, the size of this sample precludes any concrete conclusions about weaning ages and stress in general among the Maya at Santa Rita Corozal. It is also possible that these events are related to larger issues such as regional droughts or water-born disease.

在目前全球化下, 文化差異使公司在國際環境下,需要國際化經理的全球策略,不同文化使各的消費者,員工,供應商都不同,所以只有知道文化差異,才能有成功機會 / With the onset of globalization, many companies operating in international environments have found it more and more necessary to incorporate management of cross cultures into their global entry strategies. Differences in approaches, values and expectations between customers, suppliers, employees and team members with different cultural backgrounds have led to many business failures. By understanding the impact of cross-cultural differences, owners and managers can increase the probability of their business success. This thesis identifies cultural differences and similarities in the Taiwanese and Belizean societies and their influence on the leadership style adopted by Taiwanese managers in Belize. Greet Hofstede’s five cultural dimensions model was used in the analysis. Both primary and secondary data were utilized. In January 2004, ten (10) Taiwanese nationals managing Belizean employees were interviewed. Analysis of data collected indicated that despite the cultural similarities, there were still challenges faced by Taiwanese managers in managing their Belizean employees. Some of these challenges include: inadequate English communication skills on the part of the managers, lack of employee loyalty and job stability; and unskilled labor force resulting in low quality services and products. Culture as defined by Hofstede’s cultural dimensions has some effect on the leadership style adapted by Taiwanese in Belize but not necessarily on the success or failure of their businesses. According to the findings, Belizean employees lack loyalty and stability. As a result, Taiwanese managers in Belize are less trustful of their employees hence they tend to adopt a micro-managing style. Success factors of Taiwanese doing business in Belize include: building relationships (guanxi), value of time and work orientation; and clear labor laws.

Despite the fact that swidden agriculture has been the subject of decades of research, questions remain about the extent to which it is constrained by demographic growth and if it can adapt to environmental limits. In this dissertation I analyze ethnographic and ethnohistorical evidence from the Toledo District, Belize, and suggest that Q'eqchi' Maya swidden agriculture may be more ecologically adaptive than previously thought. I use social network analysis to examine farmer labor exchange networks from a chronosequence of five villages where swidden is used. Results suggest that changes in land-use patterns, network structure, and reciprocity rates may increase the system's resilience to changes in the forest's agricultural productivity. I develop a novel interpretation of labor reciprocity that highlights how unreciprocated exchanges, when they occur within the context of a social network, may limit overexploitation of a common property resource. These results are then interpreted in the context of panarchy theory; I suggest that the structural variability observed in labor exchange networks may explain how Q'eqchi' swidden maintains its identity under changing environmental conditions - a definition of resilience. Thus, the resulting picture of Q'eqchi' swidden is one of socioecological resilience rather than homeostasis; dynamic labor exchange networks help maintain a village's social cohesion, ultimately limiting pioneer settlements and slowing overall rates of deforestation. A historical and demographic analysis of market incursions into southern Belize supports this conclusion.

The aim of this thesis is to evaluate the capability of radio detection and ranging (radar) data collected by the Advanced Land Observing Satellite (ALOS) Phased Array type L-band Synthetic Aperture radar (PALSAR), supported by field measurements obtained through ground survey, to predict and map Above Ground Woody Biomass (AGWB) in the tropical savannas of the developing country of Belize, and to understand how the forest structure may influence the backscatter observed. Firstly, an extensive inventory of the woody vegetation of the tropical savannas of Belize was created by measuring the diameter at breast height (dbh), the total height (ht) and the location of 6547 trees in plots covering a total woodland area of 30.8 hectares, located within four protected areas (the Rio Bravo Conservation and Management Area (11×1ha), Deep River (108×0.1ha) and Manatee Forest Reserve (1ha) and the Bladen Nature Reserve (1ha) and also from plots located in unprotected areas (7×1ha). These measurements of forest structure, when combined with information about forest management practices obtained from local organisations revealed that different forms of protection and management may lead to the development of pine woodlands with different structural characteristics in these savannas. Secondly, a case-study was conducted to establish the sensitivity of the ALOS PALSAR backscatter data to AGWB and determine the effect of sample plot size to their relationship. The findings of this case-study show that the L-band backscatter in these low density pine woodlands is a possible predictor of AGWB and confirm that the appropriate sample plot size for predicting AGWB is one hectare; while the sensitivity degrades significantly with decreasing sample plot size. Taken together, the findings described above were combined to assess the capability of ALOS PALSAR backscatter to predict AGWB in these woodlands. A semi-empirical Water Cloud Model (WCM) describing the interaction between the backscatter and vegetation was re-arranged to enable the prediction of AGWB. Non-linear regression analysis revealed that the ALOS PALSAR backscatter predicted AGWB with an R2=0.92; an external validation conducted with additional ground reference data estimated this AGWB prediction to have an RMSE ~13 t/ha. The form of the regression model linking backscatter to AGWB appears to be particularly influenced by sample plots with higher tree numbers and by plots in which the trees were more homogeneous. The presence of many similar sized individuals within some plots is postulated as one explanation for the elevated saturation level for predictions in this study (> 100 t/ha) compared to other models. The model developed here predicts complete saturation in the backscatter - AGWB relationship to occur primarily as a result of increases in the tree number density and often concurrently in basal area, two parameters which are usually strongly correlated with AGWB in these woodlands. Thirdly, the locally validated relationship between ALOS PALSAR backscatter and AGWB is used to map AGWB for the lowland pine savannas of Belize at a spatial resolution of 100m. The mapping estimates that over 90% of these pine woodlands have an AGWB below 60 t/ha, with the average woody biomass estimated at 23.5 t/ha. When these new predictions are mapped and aggregated over the extents of two protected areas (Rio Bravo and Deep River), the totals obtained agree closely (error ≤20%) with previous estimates of AGWB obtained from ground data and previous research. The combined evidence suggests that woodland protection may produce a small, positive effect upon AGWB, with the mean of the AGWB/ha predictions higher in areas that are protected and managed for biodiversity (29.55 ± 0.84 t/ha) than in other areas that are not protected (23.29 ± 0.19 t/ha). When the fine scale local AGWB mapping produced using ALOS PALSAR is compared cell-by-cell with global biomass products at coarser spatial resolutions (500m and 1000m), the AGWB differences observed range from 115-120%. When the coarser AGWB estimates are aggregated over the extents of Deep River and Rio Bravo, the AGWB totals obtained differ significantly (~280 – 300%) from AGWB estimates from ground data and previous research. Overall, these findings suggest that where sufficient ground data exists to build a reliable local relationship to radar backscatter, more detailed biomass mapping can be produced from ALOS and similar satellite sensor data at resolutions of ~100m. This more accurate and spatially detailed information about the distribution of woody biomass within tropical lowland savannas is more appropriate for monitoring local changes in forest cover and for supporting management decisions for forested areas of around ~10,000ha than estimates based upon previously available, but coarser scale, global biomass products.