Organisations across the world are faced with the same challenges of how to get employees to be totally immersed in their role at work. People occupy roles at work. There is no sense in engaging employees if management is not going to invest in the effort of placing these employees in appropriate roles and supporting them to be engaged in their work. There are generalised states that employees occupy: people are to some degree job involved, committed to organisations, or alienated at work in the form of self-estrangement. These concepts suggest that employees can use varying degrees of themselves, physically, cognitively and emotionally, in the roles they perform. The primary objective of this research was to explore the three psychological processes, meaningfulness, safety and availability to be determinants of work engagement. Another objective was also to explore the influence of the antecedent conditions, namely work role fit, co-worker relations, supervisor relations, co-worker norms, self-consciousness and resources on work engagement. The study also investigated whether the psychological processes mediate the relationships between antecedent conditions and work engagement. A survey design was used to reach the research objectives. The specific design used was the cross-sectional design. Employees across all levels (N=165)i n a chemical industry in the Vaal Triangle were targeted for this research. Four standardised questionnaires were used in the empirical study, namely the Psychological Processes Questionnaire, Antecedent Conditions Questionnaire, Work Engagement Questionnaire as well as a Biographical Questionnaire. Multiple regression analyses showed that psychological meaningfulness mediated the relationship between work role fit and work engagement. A total of 32% of the variance in psychological meaningfulness was predicted by work role fit. Psychological meaningfulness predicted 29% of the variance in work engagement. Psychological availability mediated the relationship between available resources and work engagement. The analysis indicated that 11% of the variance in engagement was predicted by resources. Psychological availability predicted 3 1 % of the variance in engagement. Recommendations for future research were made. / Thesis (M.A. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

Organisations across the world are faced with the same challenges of how to get employees to be totally immersed in their role at work. People occupy roles at work. There is no sense in engaging employees if management is not going to invest in the effort of placing these employees in appropriate roles and supporting them to be engaged in their work. There are generalised states that employees occupy: people are to some degree job involved, committed to organisations, or alienated at work in the form of self-estrangement. These concepts suggest that employees can use varying degrees of themselves, physically, cognitively and emotionally, in the roles they perform. The primary objective of this research was to explore the three psychological processes, meaningfulness, safety and availability to be determinants of work engagement. Another objective was also to explore the influence of the antecedent conditions, namely work role fit, co-worker relations, supervisor relations, co-worker norms, self-consciousness and resources on work engagement. The study also investigated whether the psychological processes mediate the relationships between antecedent conditions and work engagement. A survey design was used to reach the research objectives. The specific design used was the cross-sectional design. Employees across all levels (N=165)i n a chemical industry in the Vaal Triangle were targeted for this research. Four standardised questionnaires were used in the empirical study, namely the Psychological Processes Questionnaire, Antecedent Conditions Questionnaire, Work Engagement Questionnaire as well as a Biographical Questionnaire. Multiple regression analyses showed that psychological meaningfulness mediated the relationship between work role fit and work engagement. A total of 32% of the variance in psychological meaningfulness was predicted by work role fit. Psychological meaningfulness predicted 29% of the variance in work engagement. Psychological availability mediated the relationship between available resources and work engagement. The analysis indicated that 11% of the variance in engagement was predicted by resources. Psychological availability predicted 3 1 % of the variance in engagement. Recommendations for future research were made. / Thesis (M.A. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

The female athlete triad (FAT or the TRIAD) is a complex syndrome arising from associations among the trio of energy availability (EA), menstrual function (MF) and bone mineral density (BMD) along their respective continuums from health to disease state. It has been recognized that women whose energy intake (EI) does not meet the energy requirements for physiological functions subsequent to participation in exercise and physical activity could have low EA. In the TRIAD, low EA, an initiator in menstrual dysfunction (MD) and concomitant hypoestrogenism, indirectly results in low BMD. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to: (i) establish the status of EA, MF and BMD among elite Kenyan female athletes and non-athletes, (ii) explore associations between EA and MF in elite Kenyan female athletes and non-athletes, (iii) determine the relationships of EA and MF to BMD in elite Kenyan female athletes and non-athletes, and (iv) to determine the profile of the female athlete triad in elite Kenyan distance athletes and in non-athletes. Measurements of EA, MF and BMD were undertaken in 39 female participants (Middle distance athletes =12, Long distance athletes=13, Non-athletes=14). Energy intake minus exercise energy expenditure (EEE) and the remnant normalized to fat free mass (FFM) determined EA. Energy availability was determined through weight of all food and liquid consumed over three consecutive days. Exercise energy expenditure was determined after isolating and deducting energy expended in exercise or physical activity above lifestyle level from the total energy expenditure output as measured by Actigraph GT3X+. Fat free mass and BMD were assessed using dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA). A nine-month daily temperature-menstrual diary was used to evaluate menstrual status. In addition, since psychological eating behaviour practice (EBP) contributes to low EA, the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q) was used to determine presence of such practice among the participants and their relationship to EA. Overall, EA below 45 kcal.kgFFM-1.d-1 was found in 61.53% of the participants (athletes=28.07±11.45kcal.kgFFM-1.d-1, non-athletes=56.97±21.38kcal.kgFMM-1.d-1). The ANOVA showed that there was a significant difference (p<0.001) in EA among the long and middle distance runners and non-athletes; and the Tukey‘s HSD revealed that the source of the difference were the non-athletes. Results of the EDE-Q showed almost negligible presence of psychopathological eating behaviour practice among the Kenyan participants. None of the TRIAD components showed significant relationship with EBP. Results of MF showed that whereas none of the athletes presented with amenorrhea, oligomenorrhea was present among 40% athletes and 14.3% non-athletes, and amenorrhea among 14.3% non-athletes. However, there was no significant difference between athletes and non-athletes in MF. Low BMD was seen in 76% of the athletes and among 86% of the non-athletes. The analysis did not show significant difference in BMD Z-scores between athletes and non-athletes. The analysis did not show any significant association between EA and MF among the participants. The only significant relation of EA to any BMD dimension measured was between EA and total BMD in the long distance runners (r=0.560; p=.046). Significant relationship (rho=0.497; p=.001) was found between MF and BMD Z-scores among the athletes with middle distance highlighting the relationship further (rho=0.632; p=.027). Overall, the binary logistic regression revealed that MF did not predict BMD (OR=4.07, 95% CI, 0.8-20.7, p=.091). Overall, 10% of the participants (athletes=4, long distance athletes =3, middle distance athletes=1, non-athletes=0) showed simultaneous presence of all three components of the TRIAD. The independent sample t-test showed a significant difference (t=5.860; p=<.001) in the prevalence of the TRIAD between athletes and non-athletes. / PhD (Human Movement Science), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

The female athlete triad (FAT or the TRIAD) is a complex syndrome arising from associations among the trio of energy availability (EA), menstrual function (MF) and bone mineral density (BMD) along their respective continuums from health to disease state. It has been recognized that women whose energy intake (EI) does not meet the energy requirements for physiological functions subsequent to participation in exercise and physical activity could have low EA. In the TRIAD, low EA, an initiator in menstrual dysfunction (MD) and concomitant hypoestrogenism, indirectly results in low BMD. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to: (i) establish the status of EA, MF and BMD among elite Kenyan female athletes and non-athletes, (ii) explore associations between EA and MF in elite Kenyan female athletes and non-athletes, (iii) determine the relationships of EA and MF to BMD in elite Kenyan female athletes and non-athletes, and (iv) to determine the profile of the female athlete triad in elite Kenyan distance athletes and in non-athletes. Measurements of EA, MF and BMD were undertaken in 39 female participants (Middle distance athletes =12, Long distance athletes=13, Non-athletes=14). Energy intake minus exercise energy expenditure (EEE) and the remnant normalized to fat free mass (FFM) determined EA. Energy availability was determined through weight of all food and liquid consumed over three consecutive days. Exercise energy expenditure was determined after isolating and deducting energy expended in exercise or physical activity above lifestyle level from the total energy expenditure output as measured by Actigraph GT3X+. Fat free mass and BMD were assessed using dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA). A nine-month daily temperature-menstrual diary was used to evaluate menstrual status. In addition, since psychological eating behaviour practice (EBP) contributes to low EA, the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q) was used to determine presence of such practice among the participants and their relationship to EA. Overall, EA below 45 kcal.kgFFM-1.d-1 was found in 61.53% of the participants (athletes=28.07±11.45kcal.kgFFM-1.d-1, non-athletes=56.97±21.38kcal.kgFMM-1.d-1). The ANOVA showed that there was a significant difference (p<0.001) in EA among the long and middle distance runners and non-athletes; and the Tukey‘s HSD revealed that the source of the difference were the non-athletes. Results of the EDE-Q showed almost negligible presence of psychopathological eating behaviour practice among the Kenyan participants. None of the TRIAD components showed significant relationship with EBP. Results of MF showed that whereas none of the athletes presented with amenorrhea, oligomenorrhea was present among 40% athletes and 14.3% non-athletes, and amenorrhea among 14.3% non-athletes. However, there was no significant difference between athletes and non-athletes in MF. Low BMD was seen in 76% of the athletes and among 86% of the non-athletes. The analysis did not show significant difference in BMD Z-scores between athletes and non-athletes. The analysis did not show any significant association between EA and MF among the participants. The only significant relation of EA to any BMD dimension measured was between EA and total BMD in the long distance runners (r=0.560; p=.046). Significant relationship (rho=0.497; p=.001) was found between MF and BMD Z-scores among the athletes with middle distance highlighting the relationship further (rho=0.632; p=.027). Overall, the binary logistic regression revealed that MF did not predict BMD (OR=4.07, 95% CI, 0.8-20.7, p=.091). Overall, 10% of the participants (athletes=4, long distance athletes =3, middle distance athletes=1, non-athletes=0) showed simultaneous presence of all three components of the TRIAD. The independent sample t-test showed a significant difference (t=5.860; p=<.001) in the prevalence of the TRIAD between athletes and non-athletes. / PhD (Human Movement Science), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

It is important that organisations are aware of factors that might affect the levels of well-being of employees, as employees are instrumental to the achievement of organisational goals. Well-being of employees can be conceptualised in terms of burnout and engagement. Studies have shown that different factors contribute to the employee experience of burnout and engagement. These factors include job demands and resources and psychological conditions (psychological meaningfulness, psychological availability and psychological safety). Although various studies regarding burnout and engagement can be found in literature, three research gaps have been identified from the studies. First, a reliable and valid instrument is needed to measure job demands and resources in a specific organisation. Second, given the cost of some measures of burnout, inadequacies in conceptualisation of the burnout construct and the inadequate psychometric properties of others, an inexpensive measure is needed which can be used to measure burnout in a valid and reliable way. Third, no studies seem to be found which focus on the effects of job demands and resources on burnout and engagement via specific psychological conditions (i.e. psychological meaningfulness, availability and safety). The general objective of this research therefore was to investigate the well-being of employees in a South African agricultural research organisation. It focused on job demands, job resources, burnout, work engagement and psychological conditions. The objective of the first study was to investigate the job demands and resources of employees in a South African agricultural research organisation. The study specifically examined the validity and reliability of a scale adapted to measure job demands and resources of the employees and established the prevalent job demands and resources of the employees. Differences that may exist based on the employees‟ demographic variables were also investigated. The aim of the second study was to provide an overview of current burnout measures that are used in the literature. From the literature, gaps were identified and used to develop a new Burnout Scale for use with employees within a South African agricultural research organisation. The research then examined the construct validity, reliability, construct equivalence and item bias of the newly-developed Burnout Scale. The research also investigated whether any differences in burnout existed in relation to the employees‟ demographic variables. The third study investigated the relationships between specific job demands, job resources, psychological conditions, burnout, and work engagement by testing a structural model of burnout and engagement in a sample of employees within a South African agricultural research organisation. The research method for each of the three articles consisted of a brief literature review and an empirical study. A non-probability availability sample of 443 agricultural employees was used. A cross-sectional design, with a survey as the data collection technique, was used. Measuring instruments that were utilised included an adapted Job Demands-Resources scale (AJDRS), a self-developed Burnout Scale (BS), a self-developed Work Engagement Scale (WES), an adapted Psychological Conditions Questionnaire (PCQ), and a biographical questionnaire. The statistical analyses were carried out with the help of the SPSS programme (IBM SPSS statistics, version 21) and MPLUS version 7.11 (Muthén, & Muthén 1998-2013). The statistical methods utilised in the three articles included descriptive statistics, Cronbach alpha coefficients, principal factor analysis, Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients, MANOVA, ANOVA, differential item functioning (DIF), and structural equation modelling. Evidence was established for the factorial validity and reliability of the AJDRS. The results indicate that the job demands experienced by employees in an agricultural research organisation are: overload and job insecurity; while job resources were: organisational support, growth opportunities, control, rewards, and physical resources (equipment). It was furthermore found that there were differences in the perceived job demands and resources of employees. In addition, the BS was found to consist of three reliable factors, i.e. fatigue, emotional exhaustion/withdrawal, and cognitive weariness. The results also showed construct equivalence for the Burnout construct, and no item bias for the language groups examined. Age was found to affect the level of perceived burnout of the employees. Furthermore, job resources (growth opportunities, control, and organisational support) were found to be positively associated with engagement, while lack of resources and job demands (overload) are positively associated with burnout of employees. Psychological meaningfulness, safety and availability are positively associated with work engagement, and negatively associated with burnout. The psychological conditions of availability, safety, and meaningfulness mediated the relationship between job resources and work engagement, as well as between lack of job resources and burnout. Psychological availability and meaningfulness mediated the relationship between job demands and burnout; however, the mediation effect of psychological safety on the relationship between job demands and burnout could not be established. Recommendations are made for practice, as well as future research. / PhD (Industrial Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

It is important that organisations are aware of factors that might affect the levels of well-being of employees, as employees are instrumental to the achievement of organisational goals. Well-being of employees can be conceptualised in terms of burnout and engagement. Studies have shown that different factors contribute to the employee experience of burnout and engagement. These factors include job demands and resources and psychological conditions (psychological meaningfulness, psychological availability and psychological safety). Although various studies regarding burnout and engagement can be found in literature, three research gaps have been identified from the studies. First, a reliable and valid instrument is needed to measure job demands and resources in a specific organisation. Second, given the cost of some measures of burnout, inadequacies in conceptualisation of the burnout construct and the inadequate psychometric properties of others, an inexpensive measure is needed which can be used to measure burnout in a valid and reliable way. Third, no studies seem to be found which focus on the effects of job demands and resources on burnout and engagement via specific psychological conditions (i.e. psychological meaningfulness, availability and safety). The general objective of this research therefore was to investigate the well-being of employees in a South African agricultural research organisation. It focused on job demands, job resources, burnout, work engagement and psychological conditions. The objective of the first study was to investigate the job demands and resources of employees in a South African agricultural research organisation. The study specifically examined the validity and reliability of a scale adapted to measure job demands and resources of the employees and established the prevalent job demands and resources of the employees. Differences that may exist based on the employees‟ demographic variables were also investigated. The aim of the second study was to provide an overview of current burnout measures that are used in the literature. From the literature, gaps were identified and used to develop a new Burnout Scale for use with employees within a South African agricultural research organisation. The research then examined the construct validity, reliability, construct equivalence and item bias of the newly-developed Burnout Scale. The research also investigated whether any differences in burnout existed in relation to the employees‟ demographic variables. The third study investigated the relationships between specific job demands, job resources, psychological conditions, burnout, and work engagement by testing a structural model of burnout and engagement in a sample of employees within a South African agricultural research organisation. The research method for each of the three articles consisted of a brief literature review and an empirical study. A non-probability availability sample of 443 agricultural employees was used. A cross-sectional design, with a survey as the data collection technique, was used. Measuring instruments that were utilised included an adapted Job Demands-Resources scale (AJDRS), a self-developed Burnout Scale (BS), a self-developed Work Engagement Scale (WES), an adapted Psychological Conditions Questionnaire (PCQ), and a biographical questionnaire. The statistical analyses were carried out with the help of the SPSS programme (IBM SPSS statistics, version 21) and MPLUS version 7.11 (Muthén, & Muthén 1998-2013). The statistical methods utilised in the three articles included descriptive statistics, Cronbach alpha coefficients, principal factor analysis, Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients, MANOVA, ANOVA, differential item functioning (DIF), and structural equation modelling. Evidence was established for the factorial validity and reliability of the AJDRS. The results indicate that the job demands experienced by employees in an agricultural research organisation are: overload and job insecurity; while job resources were: organisational support, growth opportunities, control, rewards, and physical resources (equipment). It was furthermore found that there were differences in the perceived job demands and resources of employees. In addition, the BS was found to consist of three reliable factors, i.e. fatigue, emotional exhaustion/withdrawal, and cognitive weariness. The results also showed construct equivalence for the Burnout construct, and no item bias for the language groups examined. Age was found to affect the level of perceived burnout of the employees. Furthermore, job resources (growth opportunities, control, and organisational support) were found to be positively associated with engagement, while lack of resources and job demands (overload) are positively associated with burnout of employees. Psychological meaningfulness, safety and availability are positively associated with work engagement, and negatively associated with burnout. The psychological conditions of availability, safety, and meaningfulness mediated the relationship between job resources and work engagement, as well as between lack of job resources and burnout. Psychological availability and meaningfulness mediated the relationship between job demands and burnout; however, the mediation effect of psychological safety on the relationship between job demands and burnout could not be established. Recommendations are made for practice, as well as future research. / PhD (Industrial Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014