<p>A paper that shows motion when being exposed to heat has in this study been called a paper muscle. A paper muscle can be used for many different applications, e.g. smart advertisement or indicators in printed paper products. The muscles created in the present work were prepared by gluing or printing a polymer layer onto paper. The polymer layers consisted of MELINEX, MYLAR or toner, which are known to expand when exposed to heat. Furthermore, all three material systems showed bending when exposed to heat.</p><p>A mechanical bilayer model was implemented and used to quantitatively study the parameters that influence the bending of the muscles. The model indicated that the dimensional changes of the polymer layers relative to that of the copy paper was found to be approximately 0,1-0,5 % within the temperature range 23-60 °C. The experiments showed that the combined dimensional changes within the polymer and paper layers were not linear with respect to temperature, and that there was a significant difference in bending for muscles cut in the MD and in the CD. Also, when assuming that the polymer is the active component, the observed coefficient of thermal expansion was a factor ~10 greater compared to published literature data. These findings led to the conclusion that it was indeed the dimensional changes within the paper that were the dominant cause of the bending. This was confirmed by a muscle, comprising a bilayer of paper cut in the MD and the CD, which bended when exposed to heat. The results also indicate that a large part of the bending could be attributed to the hygrocontraction of paper.</p>

A paper that shows motion when being exposed to heat has in this study been called a paper muscle. A paper muscle can be used for many different applications, e.g. smart advertisement or indicators in printed paper products. The muscles created in the present work were prepared by gluing or printing a polymer layer onto paper. The polymer layers consisted of MELINEX, MYLAR or toner, which are known to expand when exposed to heat. Furthermore, all three material systems showed bending when exposed to heat. A mechanical bilayer model was implemented and used to quantitatively study the parameters that influence the bending of the muscles. The model indicated that the dimensional changes of the polymer layers relative to that of the copy paper was found to be approximately 0,1-0,5 % within the temperature range 23-60 °C. The experiments showed that the combined dimensional changes within the polymer and paper layers were not linear with respect to temperature, and that there was a significant difference in bending for muscles cut in the MD and in the CD. Also, when assuming that the polymer is the active component, the observed coefficient of thermal expansion was a factor ~10 greater compared to published literature data. These findings led to the conclusion that it was indeed the dimensional changes within the paper that were the dominant cause of the bending. This was confirmed by a muscle, comprising a bilayer of paper cut in the MD and the CD, which bended when exposed to heat. The results also indicate that a large part of the bending could be attributed to the hygrocontraction of paper.

Le travail présenté dans ce manuscrit s’articule en trois axes distincts. Dérivation de modèles mathématiques de phénomènes électrophysiologiques en cardiologie Nous utilisons des méthodes d'analyse asymptotique pour dériver un modèle simplifié à partir d'un modèle de tissu auriculaire tridimensionnel, tout en contrôlant l'erreur d'approximation. Ces méthodes ont permis de dériver un modèle bisurfacique qui permet de simuler des comportements tridimensionnels dans les oreillettes pour un coût numérique bidimensionnel afin d'étudier des phénomènes entrant en jeu lors d'arythmies auriculaires, tels que la dissociation électrique ou des hétérogénéités transmurales. La preuve de la convergence du modèle bisurfacique est apportée, et une stratégie d'optimisation du modèle en dehors du régime asymptotique est formalisée. Une méthode d’homogénéisation est également utilisée pour construire un modèle continu homogénéisé de l'activité des myocytes incluant le comportement non linéaire des gap junctions. Processus déclencheurs d'arythmie Des preuves de concepts de mécanismes arythmogènes sont apportées à l'aide de modèles numériques des veines pulmonaires. Le premier mécanisme repose sur un bloc de conduction unidirectionnel engendré par une discontinuité dans la structure fibreuse. Le second est basé sur une dynamique différente lors de la dépolarisation et de la repolarisation lorsque deux couches de fibres de directions différentes sont superposées. Perpétuation des arythmies auriculaires Un modèle bicouche des oreillettes est construit à partir d'une méthode semi-automatique de construction des fibres que nous avons développées. Nous étudions avec l'influence d'hétérogénéités transmurales de fibrose sur la perpétuation des arythmies. Plusieurs protocoles d'ablation sont ensuite testés. Enfin, une méthode de personnalisation du modèle auriculaire est formalisée. / Three axes are explored.Derivation of mathematical models of electrophysiological phenomena applied to cardiology Asymptotic analysis methods allow to derive simplified models from three-dimensional complex atrial ones, while controlling approximation errors. We construct a bilayer surface model that allows to simulate three-dimensional phenomena for a bi-dimensional computational load, and to investigate 3D atrial patterns involved in atrial arrhythmia such as electrical dissociation or transmural heterogeneities. We prove the convergence of the bilayer model, and an optimization strategy to improve the model outside the asymptotic regime is formalised. Homogeneisation methods are also used to construct a homogenized continuous model of the electrical activity of the myocytes that includes the non linear behavior of gap junctions. Triggers of atrial arrhythmia Proofs of concept of arrhythmogenic mechanisms are given by using numerical models of the pulmonary veins. The first mechanism is based on a unidirectional conduction block triggered by a discontinuity of the fibre distribution. The second one comes from a different propagation pattern during the depolarization and the repolarization when two layer of fibres are superimposed. Atrial arrhythmia perpetuation A bilayer model of the atria is constructed from a semi automatic method that we developed. We investigate the influence of transmural heterogeneities of the distribution of fibrosis on the perpetuation of atrial arrhythmia. Several ablation protocols are assessed. Finally, a method of personalization of the model is given.