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No description available.

In the present study, two strains of Ectocarpus siliculosus with different pollution histories, LIA4 and Es524, were exposed to three PSII inhibitor herbicides, diuron (DIU), terbuthylazine (TBA) and isoproturon (IPU). Evaluation of their effects on growth and photosynthetic efficiency (Fv/Fm, ΦPSII, qP) have demonstrated negative impacts of all herbicides on both strains. With reference to the 7 d RGR EC50 values; DIU (9.9 - 25 μg L-1); TBA (18 – 28 μg L-1); IPU (257 – 315 μg L-1), the reported environmental concentrations for DIU were higher than the values that exert negative effects to E. siliculosus. However, as for TBA and IPU, the environmental concentrations were below the values which caused detrimental effects to E. siliculosus. Strain Es524, which originated from a Cu-polluted site in Chile, was found to exhibit greater resistance to the herbicides, with higher EC50 values recorded, compared to LIA4. To further elucidate the factors contributing to the relative tolerances of the two strains, responses associated with reactive oxygen species (ROS) were investigated. Measurements of H2O2 concentrations and lipid peroxidation showed significant differences between the strains, with increases in both parameters recorded at lower concentrations in LIA4 than Es524. Activities of antioxidant enzymes (CAT, APX and GR) were significantly (P < 0.05) greater in Es524 than LIA4, and total phenolic content and DPPH scavenging activity were also greater in the more tolerant strain. The rank order of toxicity of the three herbicides was diuron > terbuthylazine > isoproturon in both strains of E. siliculosus. In addition to exposure to individual herbicides, the interactions between binary mixtures were also investigated in both strains using physiological and biochemical biomarkers. All three ways of action (synergistic,additive and antagonistic) were exhibited through different endpoints applied in the present study. Significant differences (P < 0.05) between LIA4 and Es524 were observed for the DIU+TBA and TBA+IPU mixtures, while higher impacts were recorded in LIA4 strain compared to Es524. Further studies showed synergistic interactions were observed in Es524 for the aforementioned mixtures (DIU+TBA, TBA+IPU) on the antioxidative enzyme activities while in LIA4 different interactions were exhibited, which probably contribute to the higher tolerance of Es524 to the mixtures. The presence of TBA together with the phenylureas DIU/IPU was also observed to increase the stimulation of antioxidative enzymes (CAT, APX, GR) in both strains of E. siliculosus. This investigation provides new information on the abiotic stress metabolism in brown algae, and HPLC analysis demonstrates the important role of polyphenols in overcoming the impact of oxidative stress. In conclusion, exposure to the herbicides, singly and in mixtures, caused significant (P < 0.05) changes in the growth, photosynthetic efficiency, and ROM of both strains of E. siliculosus. Strain Es524 was found to be more tolerant than LIA4.

Klebsiella pneumoniae is one of the top eight pathogens in hospitals, causing around 10% of hospital-acquired infections (nosocomial infections). It often produces extended-spectrum β-lactamase enzymes (ESBLs). This has led to numerous outbreaks, especially in intensive care, neonatal and surgical wards, associated with increases in morbidity and mortality. In order to reduce the number of infections caused by multi-resistant K. pneumoniae and improve standards of infection control within hospitals, there is extensive use of biocides as disinfectants and antiseptics. However this raises concerns that intensive exposure of hospital pathogens to biocides may result in the emergence of resistance not just to themselves but also to antibiotics. The reduced susceptibility to biocides and their relationship with resistance to antibiotics was assessed in this thesis. The susceptibility of 64 isolates of K. pneumoniae to five biocides preparations, Chlorhexidine (CHX), Benzalkonium chloride (BZK), Trigene, MediHex-4 (MH-4), Mediscrub (MS) and 17 antibiotics, were tested. The isolates of K. pneumoniae were collected from Royal Infirmary Hospital in Edinburgh (RIE) between 2006 and 2008 from different sites of infection. Antimicrobial susceptibility was tested by the agar double dilution method (DDM) and disc diffusion methods following the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy (BSAC) guidelines. A few isolates of K. pneumoniae showed insusceptibility to cephalosporins, colistin, rifampicin, trimethoprim and penicillin but not to carbapenems. Biocide susceptibility testing showed that 57, 55 and 61 strains had reduced susceptibility to Chlorhexidine, Trigene and Benzalkonium chloride, respectively, but not to MediHex-4 and Mediscrub. The effect of efflux pumps were determined by carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP) (10mg/L), which decreased the MICs of Chlorhexidine and Medihex-4 by 2 – 128 fold but had no impact on the MICs of Benzalkonium chloride, Trigene and Mediscrub. Six isolates of K. pneumoniae were chosen for their varying sensitivity to Chlorhexidine (CHX), and were tested for their minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) to biocides. The high MBCs of Mediscrub and Trigene, over 500-fold greater than the minimum inhibitory concentration (MICs), indicates that these compounds are mainly bacteriostatic. Conversely, the MBCs of Chlorhexidine and MediHex-4, which contains chlorhexidine, were less than 10-times the MIC value indicating they are effective in killing the organism. However, this thesis showed how the killing capability of Chlorhexidine was hindered by the presence of organic matter, which compromised its effect. The relationship between reduced susceptibility to biocides and the carriage of antiseptic resistance genes, cepA, qacΔE1 and qacE was determined by polymerase chain reaction. The antiseptic resistance genes cepA, qacΔE1 and qacE were found in 56, 34 and 1 isolates respectively, and the levels of gene expression were detected by the reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). These results have shown that there was a close link between carriage of efflux pump genes, cepA, qacΔE1 and qacE genes and reduced susceptibility to biocides. Most strains showed decreased susceptibility to Chlorhexidine, Trigene and Benzalkonium chloride and this correlated with the carriage of the cepA, qacΔE1 and qacE genes encoding efflux. There was no correlation between the reduced susceptibility to biocides and antibiotic resistance in clinical isolates of K. pneumoniae.

<p>  </p> <p>Since the commercialization of dicamba-resistant soybean and cotton, numerous instances of suspected off-target dicamba movement onto sensitive plant species have been reported. Further investigation into chemical and environmental factors that influence dicamba volatilization is warranted to better understand the mechanisms that lead to increased dicamba off-target movement via volatilization and plant response to dicamba vapor. The environmental impacts of dicamba must be minimized in order to ensure the sustainability and continued use of dicamba, which is an important herbicide for controlling broadleaf weeds in key cropping systems and non-crop sites. </p> <p>Controlled environment experiments were conducted to characterize the chemical interactions with dicamba volatility for three formulations of dicamba on glass slides. Dicamba volatility was similar for spray solution pH levels 4 to 8 for the diglycolamine (DGA) and the diglycolamine with VaporGrip® (DGA+VG) formulations. For the N,N-Bis-(3- aminpropyl) methylamine (BAPMA) formulation, dicamba volatility increased at a pH level of 5 with continued increases in volatility occurring as spray solution continued to decrease indicating that BAPMA formulation is more sensitive to pH fluctuations than the DGA and the DGA+VG formulations. While spray solution pH levels below 4 increased dicamba volatility for all three formulations compared to each formulation applied at a native pH level (5.53, 5.2, and 6.28 for the DGA, DGA+VG, and BAPMA formulations, respectively), the largest increase in dicamba volatility occurred when ammonium or iron was added to spray solution. Therefore, applicators should avoid mixing dicamba with other tank-mix partners that contain ammonium or iron to minimize the likelihood for dicamba volatilization. </p> <p>While extensive research exists documenting the process of dicamba volatilization, there has been little confirmation regarding how volatilized dicamba enters sensitive plants. Dicamba-sensitive (DS) soybean with different levels of canopy conductance, from different watering regimes and exposure time of day, were exposed to dicamba vapor. The DS soybean response was positively correlated with soybean canopy conductance during the dicamba vapor exposure suggesting that dicamba vapor route of entry into soybean is facilitated through the stomata. An additional experiment was conducted that exposed the single side of a hypostomatic leaf to dicamba vapor on different northern red oak trees. Northern red oak tree response was substantially greater when the abaxial leaf surface (high stomatal density) was exposed to dicamba vapor compared to when the adaxial leaf surface (no stomata) was exposed to dicamba vapor. Thus, dicamba vapor entry into plants is largely facilitated via stomata and secondly through re-deposition onto the leaf surface, where dicamba is absorbed through the plant cuticle, albeit minor. If dicamba vapor is redeposited onto leaf surfaces, dicamba acid absorption through the cuticle can be limited without the presence of a surfactant. Field and greenhouse experiments confirmed that the presence of surfactants from applications of other formulated herbicides can exacerbate soybean response to dicamba acid that was deposited on the leaf surface. </p> <p>In the midwestern United States, off-target dicamba movement to DS soybean has been problematic as DS soybean are extremely sensitive to very low concentrations of dicamba. Field and greenhouses studies confirmed that there are phenotypic differences amongst different soybean genotypes and their response to dicamba. Estimations of visual soybean injury was approximately 10% less for genotypes that were less sensitive to dicamba compared to genotypes with increased sensitivity. The future identification of the mechanisms that lead to decreased sensitivity to dicamba could be used to identify soybean cultivars that could mitigate the impacts of dicamba off-target movement to DS soybean. </p> <p>Lastly, a field experiment was conducted that investigated the influence of simulated dew on dicamba volatility from dicamba treated soybean leaves, in addition to soybean response in the presence of dicamba vapor. The results from a field experiment determined that consecutive simulated dew applications increase dicamba volatility from dicamba treated soybean. Furthermore, this is the only research demonstrating that DS-soybean response increases from dicamba vapor in the presence of dew. The results from this dissertation provide further insight into the chemical and environmental factors that influence dicamba volatility, the route of entry of dicamba vapor into plants, and soybean response to dicamba.</p>

<p>When paper is manufactured, deposits often form in the machines. These deposits are slimelike and can interfere with the papermaking process. The slimelike deposits are aggregates of micro-organisms, also known as biofilm. One single type of micro-organism can form a biofilm, but most biofilms consists of a mixture of several different kinds of micro-organisms and can form on about any conceivable surface. To control the aggregates of micro-organisms a slimecide is added, a so-called biocide. To examine what kind of bacteria that is included in the biofilm and also which bacteria that is killed or not killed by the biocide, Terminal Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism analysis (T-RFLP) can be used.</p><p> </p><p>In this report we examine biocides impact on biofilm produced in the laboratory.The biocides were first tested for possible interference with the PCR-step of the T-RFLP analysis. None of the tested ten biocides inhibited the PCR process the biofilm was formed on metal plates when these were lowered in a beaker with white water. Three different beakers were set up, one with addition of a biocide with active component 4,5-DICHLORO-1,2-DITHIOLONE from the start, one with the addition of the same biocide after three days and one with no addition at all of biocide. Samples were taken from the beakers and analyzed with T-RFLP.</p><p> </p><p>In this report, we show that biocides affect planktonic and biofilm micro-organisms differently. There are however some micro-organisms in the biofilm that does not get affected by the biocide.</p><p> </p><p>The experimental in this report is a good way of investigate the influence that biocides have on planktonic and biofilm micro-organisms, but to get even greater result the experiment should be done over a longer period of time and repeatedly.</p>

No Rio Grande do Sul, a Salmonella Enteritidis vem se destacando como o principal microrganismo causador de surtos de doenças transmitidas por alimentos. A capacidade desse sorovar em aderir ao aço inoxidável e ao polietileno, assim como a resistência a desinfetantes comumente utilizados nas indústrias de alimentos foi avaliada e comparada com outros dois sorovares de Salmonella. Para mensurar a aderência bacteriana, corpos de prova de aço inoxidável (2 x 2 x 0,1cm) e de polietileno (2 x 2 x 0,7cm) permaneceram em contato com as culturas bacterianas por 15, 30 e 60 minutos e então ultrasonicados, para a realização das contagens de células aderidas. A resistência bacteriana aos desinfetantes foi avaliada através do teste de suspensão como preconizado pela legislação brasileira. Para desinfecção das superfícies, os corpos de prova permaneceram por 15 minutos em contato com as culturas bacterianas e, após dez minutos de exposição aos desinfetantes, o número de células sobreviventes foi determinado. A aderência bacteriana após os tempos de exposição indicou que a S. Typhimurium aderiu significativamente mais ao aço inoxidável que ao polietileno, enquanto que a S. Bredeney aderiu mais ao polietileno. Entretanto, não houve diferenças significativas nos níveis de aderência do sorovar S. Enteritidis, mesmo que as análises de microscopia eletrônica de varredura e de hidrofobicidade tenham indicado diferenças significativas entre os materiais. Foi observada a produção de bioemulsificante pelos três sorovares de Salmonella, sendo que a S. Enteritidis e a S. Bredeney produziram quantidades bem maiores que a S. Typhimurium. A resistência aos desinfetantes ácido peracético, hipoclorito de sódio e quaternário de amônio, quando avaliados pelo teste de suspensão, demonstraram que, nas concentrações indicadas pelo fabricante, os três compostos foram capazes de inativar os três sorovares de Salmonella. Entretanto, na concentração de 200ppm de hipoclorito de sódio comumente utilizada no Brasil, o sorovar S. Enteritidis foi o mais resistente, uma vez que sobreviveu até 15 minutos de exposição. Nenhum desinfetante conseguiu inativar todas as células aderidas (aproximadamente 5log UFC/cm2) em aço inoxidável e polietileno, exceto o quaternário de amônio que eliminou totalmente a S. Enteritidis do aço inoxidável. Tendo em vista a importância desses microrganismos como patógenos alimentares, cuidados especiais devem ser tomados nos processos de desinfecção e contaminação cruzada por Salmonella. / In Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil, Salmonella Enteritidis have been considered the principal microorganism responsible for foodborne disease. The ability of this sorovar in adhering to stainless steel and polyethylene, as well as the resistance to biocides commonly used in food industries was evaluated and compared with other two serovars of Salmonella. To measure the bacterial adherence, coupons of stainless steel (2 x 2 x 0,1cm) and polyethylene (2 x 2 x 0,7cm) remained in contact with the bacterial cultures for periods of 15, 30 e 60 minutes and so that ultrassonicated for count the adherent cells. The bacterial resistance to biocides was evaluated through the suspension test as praised for the Brazilian legislation. For surfaces disinfection, the coupons remained for 15 minutes in contact with bacterial cultures and after ten minutes of exposition to biocides, the surviving cells were determined. Bacterial adherence after 15, 30, and 60 minutes of exposure indicated that S. Typhimurium adhered significantly more to stainless steel than to polyethylene, whereas S. Bredeney adhered more to polyethylene than to stainless steel. However, there was no significative difference in adherence levels of S. Enteritidis, even when analysis of sacanning electronic microscopy has indicated expressive differences between adherence to the materials. The production of bioemulsifier by Salmonella serovars was observed, being that S. Enteritidis and S. Bredeney produced larger amounts than S. Typhimurium. The resistance to peracetic acid, and quaternary ammonium biocides when evaluated using suspension test in the presence of organic matter, demonstrated that in the concentrations indicated by manufacturers, all of the three biocides were able to inactivate the three serovars. However, using 200ppm of sodium hypochlorite, commonly used in Brazil, S. Enteritidis showed to be the most resistant serovar, since it has survived for up to 15 minutes of exposure. None of the biocides inactivate all the cells adhered (approximately 5log CFU/cm2) in stainless steel and polyethylene, except the quaternary ammonium which totally eliminated S. Enteritidis on the stainless steel surface. In view of the importance of these micorrganismos as alimentary pathogens, special cares of disinfection processes and cross-contamination for Salmonella must be taken.

No Rio Grande do Sul, a Salmonella Enteritidis vem se destacando como o principal microrganismo causador de surtos de doenças transmitidas por alimentos. A capacidade desse sorovar em aderir ao aço inoxidável e ao polietileno, assim como a resistência a desinfetantes comumente utilizados nas indústrias de alimentos foi avaliada e comparada com outros dois sorovares de Salmonella. Para mensurar a aderência bacteriana, corpos de prova de aço inoxidável (2 x 2 x 0,1cm) e de polietileno (2 x 2 x 0,7cm) permaneceram em contato com as culturas bacterianas por 15, 30 e 60 minutos e então ultrasonicados, para a realização das contagens de células aderidas. A resistência bacteriana aos desinfetantes foi avaliada através do teste de suspensão como preconizado pela legislação brasileira. Para desinfecção das superfícies, os corpos de prova permaneceram por 15 minutos em contato com as culturas bacterianas e, após dez minutos de exposição aos desinfetantes, o número de células sobreviventes foi determinado. A aderência bacteriana após os tempos de exposição indicou que a S. Typhimurium aderiu significativamente mais ao aço inoxidável que ao polietileno, enquanto que a S. Bredeney aderiu mais ao polietileno. Entretanto, não houve diferenças significativas nos níveis de aderência do sorovar S. Enteritidis, mesmo que as análises de microscopia eletrônica de varredura e de hidrofobicidade tenham indicado diferenças significativas entre os materiais. Foi observada a produção de bioemulsificante pelos três sorovares de Salmonella, sendo que a S. Enteritidis e a S. Bredeney produziram quantidades bem maiores que a S. Typhimurium. A resistência aos desinfetantes ácido peracético, hipoclorito de sódio e quaternário de amônio, quando avaliados pelo teste de suspensão, demonstraram que, nas concentrações indicadas pelo fabricante, os três compostos foram capazes de inativar os três sorovares de Salmonella. Entretanto, na concentração de 200ppm de hipoclorito de sódio comumente utilizada no Brasil, o sorovar S. Enteritidis foi o mais resistente, uma vez que sobreviveu até 15 minutos de exposição. Nenhum desinfetante conseguiu inativar todas as células aderidas (aproximadamente 5log UFC/cm2) em aço inoxidável e polietileno, exceto o quaternário de amônio que eliminou totalmente a S. Enteritidis do aço inoxidável. Tendo em vista a importância desses microrganismos como patógenos alimentares, cuidados especiais devem ser tomados nos processos de desinfecção e contaminação cruzada por Salmonella. / In Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil, Salmonella Enteritidis have been considered the principal microorganism responsible for foodborne disease. The ability of this sorovar in adhering to stainless steel and polyethylene, as well as the resistance to biocides commonly used in food industries was evaluated and compared with other two serovars of Salmonella. To measure the bacterial adherence, coupons of stainless steel (2 x 2 x 0,1cm) and polyethylene (2 x 2 x 0,7cm) remained in contact with the bacterial cultures for periods of 15, 30 e 60 minutes and so that ultrassonicated for count the adherent cells. The bacterial resistance to biocides was evaluated through the suspension test as praised for the Brazilian legislation. For surfaces disinfection, the coupons remained for 15 minutes in contact with bacterial cultures and after ten minutes of exposition to biocides, the surviving cells were determined. Bacterial adherence after 15, 30, and 60 minutes of exposure indicated that S. Typhimurium adhered significantly more to stainless steel than to polyethylene, whereas S. Bredeney adhered more to polyethylene than to stainless steel. However, there was no significative difference in adherence levels of S. Enteritidis, even when analysis of sacanning electronic microscopy has indicated expressive differences between adherence to the materials. The production of bioemulsifier by Salmonella serovars was observed, being that S. Enteritidis and S. Bredeney produced larger amounts than S. Typhimurium. The resistance to peracetic acid, and quaternary ammonium biocides when evaluated using suspension test in the presence of organic matter, demonstrated that in the concentrations indicated by manufacturers, all of the three biocides were able to inactivate the three serovars. However, using 200ppm of sodium hypochlorite, commonly used in Brazil, S. Enteritidis showed to be the most resistant serovar, since it has survived for up to 15 minutes of exposure. None of the biocides inactivate all the cells adhered (approximately 5log CFU/cm2) in stainless steel and polyethylene, except the quaternary ammonium which totally eliminated S. Enteritidis on the stainless steel surface. In view of the importance of these micorrganismos as alimentary pathogens, special cares of disinfection processes and cross-contamination for Salmonella must be taken.

No Rio Grande do Sul, a Salmonella Enteritidis vem se destacando como o principal microrganismo causador de surtos de doenças transmitidas por alimentos. A capacidade desse sorovar em aderir ao aço inoxidável e ao polietileno, assim como a resistência a desinfetantes comumente utilizados nas indústrias de alimentos foi avaliada e comparada com outros dois sorovares de Salmonella. Para mensurar a aderência bacteriana, corpos de prova de aço inoxidável (2 x 2 x 0,1cm) e de polietileno (2 x 2 x 0,7cm) permaneceram em contato com as culturas bacterianas por 15, 30 e 60 minutos e então ultrasonicados, para a realização das contagens de células aderidas. A resistência bacteriana aos desinfetantes foi avaliada através do teste de suspensão como preconizado pela legislação brasileira. Para desinfecção das superfícies, os corpos de prova permaneceram por 15 minutos em contato com as culturas bacterianas e, após dez minutos de exposição aos desinfetantes, o número de células sobreviventes foi determinado. A aderência bacteriana após os tempos de exposição indicou que a S. Typhimurium aderiu significativamente mais ao aço inoxidável que ao polietileno, enquanto que a S. Bredeney aderiu mais ao polietileno. Entretanto, não houve diferenças significativas nos níveis de aderência do sorovar S. Enteritidis, mesmo que as análises de microscopia eletrônica de varredura e de hidrofobicidade tenham indicado diferenças significativas entre os materiais. Foi observada a produção de bioemulsificante pelos três sorovares de Salmonella, sendo que a S. Enteritidis e a S. Bredeney produziram quantidades bem maiores que a S. Typhimurium. A resistência aos desinfetantes ácido peracético, hipoclorito de sódio e quaternário de amônio, quando avaliados pelo teste de suspensão, demonstraram que, nas concentrações indicadas pelo fabricante, os três compostos foram capazes de inativar os três sorovares de Salmonella. Entretanto, na concentração de 200ppm de hipoclorito de sódio comumente utilizada no Brasil, o sorovar S. Enteritidis foi o mais resistente, uma vez que sobreviveu até 15 minutos de exposição. Nenhum desinfetante conseguiu inativar todas as células aderidas (aproximadamente 5log UFC/cm2) em aço inoxidável e polietileno, exceto o quaternário de amônio que eliminou totalmente a S. Enteritidis do aço inoxidável. Tendo em vista a importância desses microrganismos como patógenos alimentares, cuidados especiais devem ser tomados nos processos de desinfecção e contaminação cruzada por Salmonella. / In Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil, Salmonella Enteritidis have been considered the principal microorganism responsible for foodborne disease. The ability of this sorovar in adhering to stainless steel and polyethylene, as well as the resistance to biocides commonly used in food industries was evaluated and compared with other two serovars of Salmonella. To measure the bacterial adherence, coupons of stainless steel (2 x 2 x 0,1cm) and polyethylene (2 x 2 x 0,7cm) remained in contact with the bacterial cultures for periods of 15, 30 e 60 minutes and so that ultrassonicated for count the adherent cells. The bacterial resistance to biocides was evaluated through the suspension test as praised for the Brazilian legislation. For surfaces disinfection, the coupons remained for 15 minutes in contact with bacterial cultures and after ten minutes of exposition to biocides, the surviving cells were determined. Bacterial adherence after 15, 30, and 60 minutes of exposure indicated that S. Typhimurium adhered significantly more to stainless steel than to polyethylene, whereas S. Bredeney adhered more to polyethylene than to stainless steel. However, there was no significative difference in adherence levels of S. Enteritidis, even when analysis of sacanning electronic microscopy has indicated expressive differences between adherence to the materials. The production of bioemulsifier by Salmonella serovars was observed, being that S. Enteritidis and S. Bredeney produced larger amounts than S. Typhimurium. The resistance to peracetic acid, and quaternary ammonium biocides when evaluated using suspension test in the presence of organic matter, demonstrated that in the concentrations indicated by manufacturers, all of the three biocides were able to inactivate the three serovars. However, using 200ppm of sodium hypochlorite, commonly used in Brazil, S. Enteritidis showed to be the most resistant serovar, since it has survived for up to 15 minutes of exposure. None of the biocides inactivate all the cells adhered (approximately 5log CFU/cm2) in stainless steel and polyethylene, except the quaternary ammonium which totally eliminated S. Enteritidis on the stainless steel surface. In view of the importance of these micorrganismos as alimentary pathogens, special cares of disinfection processes and cross-contamination for Salmonella must be taken.

High-quality drinking water can be produced with membrane-based filtration processes like reverse osmosis and nanofiltration. One of the major problems in these membrane systems is biofouling that reduces the membrane performance, increasing operational costs. Current biofouling control strategies such as pre-treatment, membrane modification, and chemical cleaning are not sufficient in all cases. Feed spacers are thin (0.8 mm), complex geometry meshes that separate membranes in a module. The main objective of this research was to evaluate whether feed spacer modification is a suitable strategy to control biofouling. Membrane fouling simulator studies with six feed spacers showed differences in biofouled spacer performance, concluding that (i) spacer geometry influences biofouling impact and (ii) biofouling studies are essential for evaluation of spacer biofouling impact. Computed tomography (CT) was found as a suitable technique to obtain three-dimensional (3D) measurements of spacers, enabling more representative mathematical modeling of hydraulic behavior of spacers in membrane systems. A strategy for developing, characterizing, and testing of spacers by numerical modeling, 3D printing of spacers and experimental membrane fouling simulator studies was developed. The combination of modeling and experimental testing of 3D printed spacers is a promising strategy to develop advanced spacers aiming to reduce the impact of biofilm formation on membrane performance and to improve the cleanability of spiral-wound membrane systems.