Dissertação(mestrado) - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Oceanografia Física, Química e Geológica, Instituto de Oceanografia, 2006. / Submitted by Cristiane Silva (cristiane_gomides@hotmail.com) on 2013-03-12T14:43:01Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Kutter.pdf: 589899 bytes, checksum: 1ddba4cf713f5288dab0784d9fa6dd21 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Bruna Vieira(bruninha_vieira@ibest.com.br) on 2013-04-25T13:03:10Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Kutter.pdf: 589899 bytes, checksum: 1ddba4cf713f5288dab0784d9fa6dd21 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2013-04-25T13:03:10Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Kutter.pdf: 589899 bytes, checksum: 1ddba4cf713f5288dab0784d9fa6dd21 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006 / No ambiente aquático um dos mais perigosos contaminantes é o mercúrio.A contaminação por mercúrio na cadeia trófica em ambientes aquáticos pode ser severa e persistente, uma das principais fontes de contaminação por mercúrio em humanos através da cadeia alimentar são os peixes. Nesse estudo:- Foram mensurados os níveis de mercúrio em três lagos no extremo sul do Brasil e avaliou-se a relação entre mercúrio na precipitação atmosférica total, material particulado no ar, material particulado na água dos lagos, sedimentos, solo e água subterrânea as margens dos lagos, plantas aquáticas, molusco aquático e peixes de áreas próximas às fontes de emissão de mercúrio (áreas: industrial e suburbana) e distante das fontes de mercúrio (área de reserva natural).- Foram mensurados os níveis de mercúrio em vinte e sete espécies de peixes de quatro ambientes (lago fechado, lago aberto, estuário, marinho). Simulou-se o aporte de mercúrio atmosférico para os lagos, através de um experimento. No qual adicionou-se poeira contaminada por mercúrio em tanques contendo: peixe, sedimento e plantas aquáticas. As concentrações de mercúrio no sedimento e nas plantas aquáticas não demonstraram variação entre os lagos. Em molusco, água subterrânea, e material particulado na água dos lagos apresentam diferença muito pequena entre as três áreas estudadas. No entanto, o nível de mercúrio na precipitação atmosférico nesses lagos estudado apresentou aumento com a proximidade da fonte industrial. Mercúrio no tecido de peixe geralmente aumenta ao longo do mesmo gradiente, mas varia com o nível trofico. A concentração de mercúrio em peixe pode estar diretamente relacionada com a concentração de mercúrio na deposição atmosférica nesses lagos fechados. Foram encontradas altas concentrações de mercúrio em peixes do lago fechado na área suburbana, em relação ao lago aberto, estuário e oceano. Em todos os ambientes, as espécies piscívoras apresentaram maior valor de mercúrio no tecido do que as espécies não piscívoras. A simulação do processo de contaminação por mercúrio através do depósito das precipitações atmosféricas na superfície da água em laboratório demonstrou acumulação progressiva de mercúrio nas plantas aquáticas e no sedimento. / Mercury is one of the most hazardous contaminant in aquatic environment. Mercury contamination in aquatic environment food webs can be severe and persistent, and fish are a major source of mercury contamination in humans across food web. In this study: - Was measured mercury levels at three lakes in southern Brazil and assessed relationships between mercury in atmospheric precipitation, particulate matter in lake water, sediment, soil near the lake, groundwater, aquatic plants, aquatic mollusc and fish tissues at sites close to (industrial and suburban areas) and distant from (protected conservation area) sources of mercury emissions. - Mercury levels are measured in twenty-seven fish species from four sites (close lake, open lake, estuary, marine). Was simulated the input of mercury at atmosphere from lake, through the experiment. In this experiment to add the dust contamination with mercury in pools contained: fish, sediments and aquatic plants. Also assessed relationship between mercury in fish species and their trophic habits. Mercury concentrations in sediment and aquatic plants did not significant variation among lakes. In aquatic mollusc, groundwater and particulate matter in lake water has small difference between the three sites. In contrast, mercury in precipitation at the study lakes increased with proximity to industrial sources. Mercury in fish tissue generally increased along the same gradient, but also varied with trophic level. Atmospheric mercury deposition to these closed lakes may be directly linked to concentrations in fish. Was finding the highest mercury concentration in fish from close lake in relation than open lake, estuary and ocean. In every site the piscivorous species present more mercury in tissue than species non-piscivorous. The simulation of process of mercury contamination through the deposition of atmospheric precipitation in the water surface in laboratory demonstrates progressive mercury accumulation in aquatic plants and sediment.

Biofiltros em Areia (BFAs) estão sendo aperfeiçoados e testados no Brasil com intuito de auxiliar comunidades carentes que são menos favorecidas em relação à água de boa qualidade. O presente estudo tem como objetivo analisar a qualidade da água tratada pelos BFAs a partir de bioensaios de toxicidade, utilizando larvas do inseto Chironomus sancticaroli, oligoqueto Allonais inaequalis e peixes da espécie Danio rerio, analisando possíveis efeitos tóxicos que possam estar presentes quando a água entra em contato com o PVC do corpo do BFA, além de avaliar a toxicidade da água do poço (AP), captada para abastecimento do BFA. Nos testes de toxicidade agudo (com duração de 96h), crônico (8 dias) e testes mais longos (16 dias) com Chironomus sancticaroli, utilizou-se 240mL da solução-teste (água proveniente do BFA ou AP) em 60g de sedimento controle (areia branca fina para aquário) em 4 réplicas, sendo utilizados 6 larvas de IV ínstar por réplica no teste de toxicidade agudo e de I ínstar nos testes de toxicidade crônico e testes mais longos, alimentadas com 5mL de solução contendo 1000mL de água deionizada e 5,0g de ração tipo Tetramim®. Nos testes de toxicidade agudo e crônico com Allonais inaequalis, foram utilizados 100mL da solução-teste em 5g de sedimento controle em quatro réplicas, sendo utilizados 6 organismos por réplica, alimentados com 5mL de solução contendo 1000mL de água deionizada e 2,0g de ração tipo Tetramim® , com duração de 96h e 10 dias, respectivamente. Foram realizados apenas testes de toxicidade agudo com D. rerio no qual utilizou-se 1000mL de solução-teste e 2 organismos por réplica, em duas réplicas, com duração de 48h, sem alimentação. Os resultados apontam para uma baixa toxicidade do Biofiltro em Areia em relação às três espécies testadas. Além de um índice alto de sobrevivência, a espécie C. sancticaroli concluiu seu ciclo em testes mais longos (16 dias), além de reproduzir-se; a espécie A. inaequalis apresentou 100% de sobrevivência em todos os testes realizados; e não houve mortalidade nos testes de toxicidade agudo com D. rerio. Porém, é importante destacar que estes resultados indicam apenas dados toxicológicos para fauna em relação as efluentes testados, não sendo possível responder a questões de potabilidade da água tratada pelo BFA. Esta dissertação é parte integrante de um projeto financiado pela FAPESP (Processo nº 2014/12712-8), intitulado \"Construção e desempenho de filtros lentos domiciliares conforme a realidade das comunidades isoladas do Brasil\" que esteve sob coordenação da Profa. Dra. Lyda Patricia Sabogal Paz e do Prof. Dr. Juliano José Corbi. / Sand Biofilters (SBFs) are being refined and tested in Brazil. These studies are intended to assist needy communities with difficulties to access drinking water. The aim of the current study is analyze the quality of water treated by SBFs, using toxicity bioassays with larvae of fly Chironomus sancticaroli, oligochaete Allonais inaequalis and zebrafishes Danio rerio, as well as verify the occurrence of possible toxic effects of PVC (Polyvinyl chloride), a material component of SBFs\' structure, and also evaluate the toxicity of well water quality (AP), extracted to supply the SBF. In the acute toxicity tests (lasting 96h), chronic (lasting 8 days) and longer tests (lasting 16 days), all involving Chironomus sancticaroli, it was placed 240mL of sample solution (water from SBF or AP) in 60g of sterile sediment (fine white sand for aquarium) in four replicates, where was added 6 larvae (IV instar) in each replicate for the acute toxicity test, and larvae of I instar for chronic toxicity tests, even as in the longer tests. The organisms were fed by 5mL of Tetramim ® solution (5g/L). In the acute and chronic toxicity tests with Allonais inaequalis, it was applied 100mL of sample solution with 5g of sterile sand in four replicates, as above, it was added 6 organisms by replicate, fed by Tetramim ® (2,0g/L) for both tests, with lasting of 96h and 10 days, respectively. It was performed only tests of acute toxicity for D. rerio in which was added 1000mL of sample solution and 2 organisms for each replicate, with two replicates, with duration of 48h, without feeding. The results showed a low toxicity of sand Biofilters\' effluent in relation to the three species exposed to the liquid. Furthermore, the results demonstrate a high index of survival, even in longer tests (16 days lasting) with C. sancticaroli when the organisms could conclude their life cycle. However, besides the 100% of survival in all test, for the A. inaequalis were also observed reproduction; and in the acute toxicity tests for D. rerio it wasn\'t noticed mortality. Although, it is important to highlight that these results represent only toxicological data concerning to aquatic wildlife exposed to effluents, what is not regarding to potability issues of the water treated by SBF. This dissertation is a constituent part of a project financiad by FAPESP (Process number 2014/12712-8), entitled \"Building and performance of domiciliary slow filters according to the isolated comunities reality in Brazil\" which was coordinated by Professors PhD. Lyda Patricia Sabogal Paz and PhD. Juliano José Corbi.

Este trabalho apresenta estratégias para o ensino do tema biodiversidade na educação básica. O modelo instrucional adotado buscou estimular o educando do ensino fundamental a conhecer a aprender sobre a biodiversidade da sua própria região, além da compreensão de temas relativos ao meio ambiente de forma geral. Para a construção desse modelo foram utilizados, principalmente, os documentos gerados pelo programa Biota-FAPESP. Com isso, procurou-se atender ao item preconizado na Agenda 21 Global, de ensinar em e sobre a sua região. O trabalho foi desenvolvido em três etapas principais: i) aplicação de um questionário para avaliar o nível de conhecimento prévio do estudante sobre o tema; ii) fundamentação teórica; iii) elaboração de cartilhas e almanaques. Ao final do processo, os alunos foram capazes de formular um conceito de biodiversidade, levando em consideração a diversidade das espécies em seus ecossistemas e as relações entre os seres vivos e o ambiente. Pode-se concluir que a metodologia utilizada para a construção do conceito de biodiversidade pelos alunos foi eficiente quando comparada à forma tradicional de ensinar. / In order to develop this work, we made actions in classroom and in visits at field with the objective of the students build the own biodiversity meaning. The work was developed in the three stages: i) application of a questionnaire; ii) theoretical fundaments; iii) activities with primer and almanac. Finally, the students were able to improve their biodiversity concept, considering the diversity of the species, of the ecosystems and of the relationship among living creatures and the environmental, as well, the regional biodiversity through the documents generated by Biota FAPESP program at the end of the 20th century.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Human Nutrition / Mark D. Haub / Little is known about the impact of dietary fiber (DF) on children. Current recommendations are based on extrapolations from adult studies. Research is needed to provide science based evidence to determine how DF impacts the gut of children. Two studies were conducted to investigate the interactions of DF in the child large intestine. In the first study, the dose response of DF on breath hydrogen, methane, and total hydrogen content was investigated relative to Institute of Medicine (IOM) recommended intakes in free-living preschool children. Only four of the 18 participants were able to comply with the treatment protocol. Although, no significant differences were noted in breath measures of fermentation across fiber consumption levels, there was a numerical pattern for increasing levels of DF to evolved increased gas production in the four compliers. In free-living individuals measures of acute fiber fermentation through breath was not sensitive enough over 6 hours to distinguish a difference in fermentative rate. Children, parents, and child care centers found this approach apparently acceptable. In study two, the impact of DF (10 g) fed over three weeks in children and their parents on metabolic markers of fermentation were evaluated. The body was able to adapt to 10 g/day DF consumption as bloating (p < 0.05) and flatulence (p = 0.06) decreased each week of the study. Fecal propionic acid was significantly increased over three weeks of DF supplementation. There was also an interaction (p=0.05) between time and age for butyric acid. Dietary fiber supplementation (10 g/day) over three weeks via a commercially available extruded cereal was well-tolerated by the participants, with no disturbances in bowel habit in children or adults. Alternatively, there were no improved bowel habit measures with increased DF consumption. This study provides evidence that this tolerable dose of DF supplementation over three weeks had similar impacts in free-living children and adults. However, the presence of increased butyric acid only in children may be reflective of different production or absorptive capacities between children and adults. Although not presented here, the bacterial ecological analysis may shed further insight into the interactions occurring in the large intestine. These are the first studies to my knowledge to have investigated these outcomes in young children. In addition to the gut health outcomes, this research provided a framework into the apparent feasibility of studying children in a gentle, non-invasive, and cost-effective manner.

A perda e fragmentação do hábitat estão entre as principais ameaças à biodiversidade tropical terrestre. Entender como essas alterações ambientais afetam a biodiversidade tem sido um desafio para ecólogos e conservacionistas. Neste estudo, testamos o efeito da fragmentação florestal sobre a diversidade filogenética e a estrutura filogenética de comunidades de aves ao longo de um gradiente de fragmentação na Mata Atântica. Avaliamos comunidades de aves em 83 fragmentos florestais e descrevemos a paisagem ao redor com três índices: quantidade de hábitat, conectividade estrutural e agregação das manchas. Esses índices foram calculados em paisagens circulares de 1 km ao redor dos pontos amostrais. Além dessas medidas de paisagem, também incluímos dados de elevação como variável preditiva ou aleatória, usando modelos lineares ou não-lineares. Nossos resultados mostraram que a quantidade de hábitat e agregação das manchas tem forte efeito sobre a diversidade filogenética. No entanto, esse efeito é condicionado à altitude. Assim, maiores valores de diversidade filogenética se encontram em paisagens de maior quantidade de hábitat, maior agregação das manchas e maior altitude. O aumento da diversidade filogenética com o aumento de quantidade de hábitat e agregação das manchas se deve principalmente à relação da riqueza de espécies com a quantidade de hábitat e a proximidade entre as manchas de hábitat. Por outro lado, o aumento da diversidade filogenética com a altitude provavelmente é consequência das condições ambientais de montanhas tropicais e de aspectos evolutivos e biogeográficos da Mata Atlântica. Também, verificamos que a conectividade estrutural interferiu no padrão de estrutura filogenética das comunidades mostrando: padrão agrupado em baixa conectividade e disperso em alta conectividade. Assim, valores baixos de conectividade estrutural atuaram como filtro ambiental, selecionando espécies mais próximas filogeneticamente. / Habitat loss and fragmentation are among the main threats of terrestrial tropical biodiversity. Understanding how these factors affect biodiversity has been a challenge for ecologists and conservationists. In this study, we tested the effect of forest loss and fragmentation in the phylogenetic diversity and in the phylogenetic structure in ecological bird communities along fragmentation gradient in Atlantic Forest. We evaluated bird communities in 83 forest fragments and described the surrounding landscapes with three indices: habitat amount, structural connectivity and patch aggregation. These metrics were calculated in 1 km buffers around the centroid of sampling fragment. Beside these landscape metrics, we also included elevation data as predictive or random variable, using linear and non-linear models. Our results showed that habitat amount and patch aggregation had strong effect in the phylogenetic diversity. However, this effect is conditioned by the elevation. Thus, the higher phylogenetic diversities were found in landscapes that simultaneously had higher values of habitat amount, patch aggregation and elevation. The increment of phylogenetic diversity with patch aggregation and habitat amount is mainly related with the increment of species richness in these landscape conditions. On the other hand, the elevation intereferences in phylogenetic diversity is probably related with climatic, evolutionary and biogeographic factors of the Atlantic Forest. We also found that structural connectivity interfered in the of phylogenetic structure pattern showing: clustered pattern in lower connectivity and dispersed pattern in higher connectivity. Thus, lower structural connectivity may act as environmental filter, selecting phylogenetically closely species. / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais - FAPEMIG

The study has attempted to characterise the physicochemical limnology and distribution of algal flora of two salt lake systems in Western Australia, one from the coastal Esperance region and the other from the inland Kambalda region. Climatic conditions, water regimes and physicochemistry were found to differ markedly between the two lake systems and a total of 171 algal taxa, representing five divisions, were recorded. Of these, 82 were members of Bacillariophyta, 48 of Cyanophyta, 33 of Chlorophyta, two of Euglenophyta and six of Dinophyta. The physical limnology of salt lakes in the Esperance region was seasonally variable, defined by climatic conditions. As such, the lakes investigated in the region exhibited a stable cycle of filling during winter and spring, and drying out in summer. Four of the lakes in the region could be classified as near-permanent, and one as seasonal on the basis of predictability and duration of filling. Seasonal fluctuations in water depth resulted in fluctuations in salinity levels. Salinity levels ranged from subsaline to hypersaline, and all the lakes in the region were alkaline. In addition, the lakes were well mixed in terms of oxygen and temperature, and were impacted by eutrophication from their catchments. They were either mesotrophic or eutrophic with respect to both nitrogen and phosphorus. In geological terms, lakes in the Esperance region were separated only recently from the ocean, and two lakes retain a connection with marine waters, one through a creek during years of high rainfall and one through hydrological interactions with groundwater of marine origin. In general, the algal communities of lakes in the Esperance region were similar to those of other Australian coastal salt lakes. / Diatoms and cyanobacteria were dominant in all lakes except the most eutrophic, Lake Warden, in which benthic green algae were most abundant. All algal species recorded were known for their wide geographic distribution and their distribution in Australian coastal waters. Characteristically coastal diatom species included Achnanthes brevipes, Achnanthes coarctata, Achnanthes lanceolata var. dubia, Achnanthidium cruciculum, Campylodiscus clypeus, Cyclotella atomus, Cyclotella meneghiniana, Cyclotella striata, Mastogloia elliptica, Mastoglia pumila, Nitzschia punctata and Thalassiosira weissflogii. The inland salt lakes of the Kambalda region form part of an extensive palaeodrainage system, and were much less predictable in terms water regime than lakes in Esperance. Water depth was determined by seasonal variability in rainfall and evaporation, and by summer cyclonic rainfall events that were unreliable from year to year. In addition, rainfall varied spatially within the region. As such, most lakes were classified as intermittent. Two lakes in the region were not classified on the basis of water regime as they were too highly impacted by mining activities including water diversion and impoundment, water extraction and discharge of groundwater. Salinity varied in accordance with drying and filling cycles in the lakes except the most hypersaline as the volume of water received during rainfall events was insufficient to dilute the extensive surface salt crusts they each supported when dry. Salinities recorded in the region ranged from subsaline to hypersaline, and ionic compositions exhibited the same spectrum as seawater. / Calcium levels were significantly higher than in lakes from the Esperance region due to weathering of calcium rich sediments, and pH ranged from weakly acidic in the most hypersaline lakes to alkaline in the least saline lakes. All were well mixed in terms of oxygen and temperature. Kambalda salt lakes support distinctive algal communities dominated by diatoms and cyanobacteria that are adapted to intermittent water regimes, extended periods of desiccation and variable salinity. Not surprisingly then, none of the algal taxa recorded from the region were regionally restricted, all noted previously in the literature to have wide geographic distributions, and to be tolerant of a range of physicochemical conditions. Canonical correspondence analysis showed that, of the physicochemical parameters that were investigated in this study, both salinity and pH interacted in determining algal community structure. Both of these attributes were correlated with water depth, which varied according to climatic conditions in a seasonal drying and filling cycle. The general relationship between species richness and pH and salinity, and species diversity and pH and salinity was simple and linear; with increasing pH and salinity, species diversity and species richness decreased. What was less simple, and non-linear, was the nature of the relationship between species richness and diversity and salinity within more narrowly defined ranges of salinity. As salinity increased from <1ppt to 30ppt there was a dramatic reduction in species richness and diversity, then, as salinity increased from 30ppt to 100ppt the rate of decrease slowed. Between 100ppt and 250ppt there was almost no relationship between salinity and species richness and species diversity, but after 250ppt both species diversity and species richness declined markedly.

New Zealand is an isolated island nation and more than 95% of its commodities are imported by ship, making New Zealand particularly vulnerable to marine bioinvasion. Its marine biota and ecosystem are unique with numerous endemic organisms, and it is a biodiversity hotspot of global significance. The objective of this study was to integrate invasive theory with phylogeographic studies on a native ascidian. This study was motivated by the introduction of an invasive ascidian, Styela clava to New Zealand. To date, S. clava’s cytochrome oxidase I (COI) data indicate limited sharing of haplotypes between the ports of Lyttelton and Auckland, and areas within Hauraki Gulf. The connectivity between these disparate sites may be a consequence either of common overseas origins via international shipping or local vectoring within New Zealand by coastal shipping. In this thesis I have examined the phylogeographic relationships among populations of an endemic ascidian, Cnemidocarpa nisiotis, to attempt to gauge the likely role that local vectoring plays in the movement of ascidians and other species among New Zealand ports. This study also provides the first population genetic information on a native New Zealand ascidian An endemic New Zealand ascidian was chosen as the study species because the use of an endemic species excludes or at least reduces the possibility of external input from overseas sites con-founding any patterns observed in the data. Furthermore, by excluding external input, the pattern of genetic diversity observed in this species might enable us to determine if local shipping pathways are homogenising C. nisiotis populations. C. nisiotis individuals were collected inside and outside of ports and marinas around Haruaki Gulf, Wellington, Lyttelton, and Dunedin harbours. Each individual were dissected and morphologically identified. Morphological identification of C. nisiotis matched type specimen (Chapter 2). However, preliminary results with COI haplotype network revealed three lineages (A, B and C) and such was the level of differences among these lineages raised the question of the possibility of a cryptic species. This 3 hypothesis was further investigated with phylogenetic analysis using both COI and 18S ribosomal DNA sequence data. Phylogeographic analysis of C. nisiotis COI molecular data demonstrated no significant population genetic structure, with a single common haplotype shared between the North and South islands (Chapter 4). Sharing of haplotypes was also evident between harbours in the South Island and within sites where population samples from inside ports, marinas, and natural habitats were not significantly different from each other. The lack of difference between the North and South Island for this species was surprising given that it was believed to have limited dispersal ability in the absence of anthropogenic movement. However, C. nisiotis displays a star-like phylogeny indicative of a selective sweep, population bottleneck or founder event followed by a population range expansion, thus the lack of difference between islands may be a consequence of too little evolutionary time having passed since the populations shared a common origin for differentiation to have occurred.

New Zealand is an isolated island nation and more than 95% of its commodities are imported by ship, making New Zealand particularly vulnerable to marine bioinvasion. Its marine biota and ecosystem are unique with numerous endemic organisms, and it is a biodiversity hotspot of global significance. The objective of this study was to integrate invasive theory with phylogeographic studies on a native ascidian. This study was motivated by the introduction of an invasive ascidian, Styela clava to New Zealand. To date, S. clava’s cytochrome oxidase I (COI) data indicate limited sharing of haplotypes between the ports of Lyttelton and Auckland, and areas within Hauraki Gulf. The connectivity between these disparate sites may be a consequence either of common overseas origins via international shipping or local vectoring within New Zealand by coastal shipping. In this thesis I have examined the phylogeographic relationships among populations of an endemic ascidian, Cnemidocarpa nisiotis, to attempt to gauge the likely role that local vectoring plays in the movement of ascidians and other species among New Zealand ports. This study also provides the first population genetic information on a native New Zealand ascidian An endemic New Zealand ascidian was chosen as the study species because the use of an endemic species excludes or at least reduces the possibility of external input from overseas sites con-founding any patterns observed in the data. Furthermore, by excluding external input, the pattern of genetic diversity observed in this species might enable us to determine if local shipping pathways are homogenising C. nisiotis populations. C. nisiotis individuals were collected inside and outside of ports and marinas around Haruaki Gulf, Wellington, Lyttelton, and Dunedin harbours. Each individual were dissected and morphologically identified. Morphological identification of C. nisiotis matched type specimen (Chapter 2). However, preliminary results with COI haplotype network revealed three lineages (A, B and C) and such was the level of differences among these lineages raised the question of the possibility of a cryptic species. This 3 hypothesis was further investigated with phylogenetic analysis using both COI and 18S ribosomal DNA sequence data. Phylogeographic analysis of C. nisiotis COI molecular data demonstrated no significant population genetic structure, with a single common haplotype shared between the North and South islands (Chapter 4). Sharing of haplotypes was also evident between harbours in the South Island and within sites where population samples from inside ports, marinas, and natural habitats were not significantly different from each other. The lack of difference between the North and South Island for this species was surprising given that it was believed to have limited dispersal ability in the absence of anthropogenic movement. However, C. nisiotis displays a star-like phylogeny indicative of a selective sweep, population bottleneck or founder event followed by a population range expansion, thus the lack of difference between islands may be a consequence of too little evolutionary time having passed since the populations shared a common origin for differentiation to have occurred.

The nature of the Ediacaran macrobiota (c. 580-541 Ma) remains puzzling. These first assemblages of large, complex fossils may have included early animals; giant microbial forms; and organisms representing radically different body plans that went extinct. Discoidal impressions – some forming the base of Ediacaran fronds but most found as isolated discs – dominate the Ediacaran macrobiota. However round markings may also be formed in a variety of abiogenic ways. This study investigates the nature and biogenicity of discoidal impressions from two Ediacaran successions: the c. 560-Ma upper Burway Formation, Longmyndian Supergroup, Shropshire, UK; and several sites on the Bonavista and Avalon Peninsulas, Newfoundland, Canada, ranging in age from 565–c. 560 Ma. The investigation involved fieldwork, photography, serial grinding through cross-sections, and optical and scanning electron microscopy. It concludes that several Longmyndian discoidal forms are pseudofossils formed by sediment injection resulting from small-scale fluid escape inferred to be driven by microbial mat sealing. Turning to clearly biogenic impressions, comparison of the varied morphologies of holdfast discs associated with fronds preserved under ash and sand from several Newfoundland sites leads to a generic model of their architecture as consisting of enclosed chambers, a complex construction perhaps for strength or possibly symbiosis. Detailed observations of the rayed disc Hiemalora suggest that it may have had an amoeboid lifestyle. Finally, the key Ediacaran taxon Aspidella is separated from the discs Ediacaria and Spriggia, with which it has been synonymized, and interpreted as a possible polyp-like animal capable of limited movement. This thesis thus demonstrates that the earliest reported Ediacaran discoidal impressions are abiogenic, produced by mat-influenced processes particularly relevant to the Precambrian, and proposes models and interpretations for several key Ediacaran forms that have important implications for both the nature and diversity of the Ediacaran macrobiota, and early animal evolution.

Biological indicators measure components of the biota and are used to give general information about complex ecosystems in which they occur, playing key roles in conservation planning and management. This study illustrates the impact of habitat change by factors that are extrinsic to the habitats in question and the importance of spider responses in aiding management decisions. The spider responses illustrated existence of environmental change and represent responses of other biota. The conclusions drawn from this study have important management implications for protected areas with grazing herbivores and occurrence of alien invasive plants. Grazed sites showed the highest abundance, diversity and species richness, while ungrazed had the lowest. The implications from this study are that no grazing has negative implications on lower trophic levels, whereas grazing seems to result in favourable conditions for optimal abundance, diversity and species richness. The higher abundance, diversity and species richness associated with grazed sites could result from increased ground cover, greater variation in habitat structure, increased plant diversity and enhanced soil/plant nutrient concentrations. But, ungrazed sites in turn become more monotonous and provide less habitat diversity. However, the characteristic species for each grazing intensity level demonstrates the difficulty in making generalizations for management even for closely related species. The results further opposed the assumption that grazing lawns are a result of overgrazing and thus highly undesirable. This grassland type in comparison to tall bunch grassland displayed the highest spider diversity and species richness. This evidence further supports the conclusion that grazing lawns are steady state communities of their own and not a sub-set of any other grassland type. Therefore, veld management decisions that eradicate grazing lawns are negative for the park as the fauna and flora associated with this grassland type will be lost, leading to cascading effects. Additionally, this study illustrated that habitat modification by invasion of invasive alien plant species has detrimental consequences for the endemic fauna. C. odorata invasion results in a monotonous habitat structure. Consequently, structural heterogeneity is a primary determinant for spider diversity as opposed to abundance of prey, because plant height and architecture drive spider colonization. Therefore, removal of alien invasive weeds results in returning a system to close approximation of its condition prior to disturbance with both structure and function recreated. Assemblage patterns can be selected as endpoints to measure the ecological rehabilitation; thus, the non-significant differences in assemblage patterns of the control versus cleared sites imply that the system is rehabilitating with clearing without further management intervention. This study adds to the limited information on the implications of grazing intensities, grassland types, short and long-term invasion and clearing of an alien invasive plant on spider communities. Copyright / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2008. / Animal and Wildlife Sciences / unrestricted