This work was carried out on behalf of Science Safari. Science Safari wants to create a product that facilitates the understanding of how much physical work is required to create electrical energy. This is done by cranking the pedals of a bicycle. The purpose of this work is to create a control unit that keeps the torque required to crank the pedals close to constant. The torque can be kept constant by creating a variable load for the generator, in this case, a pulse modulated JFET is used. The output of the current sensor and the Hall-effect sensor are used to calculate the required resistance of the JFET to keep constant torque. All this is controlled via a Raspberry Pi 3 Model B (RPi) which also shows real-time values on a display. The functionality of the sensors and JFET has largely been completed, but the assembly of all components is lacking in this work. / Detta arbete är utfört i uppdrag av Science Safari. Science Safari vill skapa en produkt som underlättar förståelsen av hur mycket fysiskt arbete som krävs för att skapa elektrisk energi. Detta genom att användaren vevar på en cykels pedaler för hand. Syftet med detta arbete är att skapa en styrenhet som ungefär håller ett konstantvridmomentet på en cykels pedaler. Vridmomentet kan hållas konstant genom att skapa en variabel last till generatorn, med hjälp av en pulsmodulerad JFET. För att beräkna vilken resistans JFETen ska ha för att hålla konstant vridmoment används en strömsensor och en Hall-effect sensor. Allt detta styrs via en Raspberry Pi 3 ModelB som även visar värden i realtid på en display. Funktionaliteten av sensorerna och JFET har till stor del färdigställts men sammansättning av alla komponenter saknas i detta arbete.

Small electric uninhabited aerial vehicles (UAV) represent a rapidly expanding market requiring optimization in both efficiency and weight; efficiency is critical during cruise or loiter where the vehicle operates at part power for up to 99% of the mission time. Of the four components (battery, motor, propeller, and electronic speed controller (ESC)) of the electric propulsion system used in small UAVs, the ESC has no accepted performance model and almost no published performance data. To collect performance data, instrumentation was developed to measure electrical power in and out of the ESC using the two wattmeter method and current sense resistors; data was collected with a differential simultaneous data acquisition system. Performance of the ESC was measured under different load, commanded throttle, bus voltage, and switching frequency, and it was found that ESC efficiency decreases with increasing torque and decreasing bus voltage and does not vary much with speed and switching frequency. The final instrumentation was limited to low-voltage systems and error propagation calculations indicate a great deal of error at low power measurements; despite these limitations, an understanding of ESC performance appropriate for conceptual design of these systems was obtained. MODELING AND TEST OF THE EFFICIENCY OF ELECTRONIC SPEED CONTROLLERS FOR BRUSHLESS DC MOTORS

This thesis was written at Airbus DS GmbH in Friedrichshafen, Germany, as part of a project which aims to develop a new generation of class-D power amplification circuits for sinusoidal commutating motors controlling the movement of different mechanisms in satellites. Currently used topologies have disadvantages such as high power loss, analog controlling and high degree of signal distortion. This work first simulates available topologies which were previously developed by the company in order to compare them and build a trade-off list so the most suitable circuit is selected. Then, by further simulating and analysis several improvements to the circuit are suggested and a final schematic is developed including an analogue-to-digital converter and a total of three phases to power a motor. After a demonstrator circuit was designed and built, it was tested by using an external real time target machine to generate the corresponding PWM signals in correspondence to a controlling signal generated via Simulink. The final product of this thesis confirmed the simulation results such as an improved signal quality at higher frequencies in comparison to an available measurement from a previous generation circuit. The flexibility of the topology as well as the possibility of implementing a digital control was also confirmed during this phase of the project. Upon further work, the dimensioning of the output low pass filter should be improved and a digital PID controller should be implemented in the controlling FPGA. / <p>This version of the Master Thesis deviates from the formal original submitted for examination in order not to disclose confidential information of Airbus DS GmbH. All positions in the document, where additional information was removed are properly identified. This document can be published according to the general rules of the Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg and the Lulea University of Technology.</p>

Elektrische Maschinen werden heutzutage auf mannigfaltigen Gebieten eingesetzt. Sie verrichten ihre Aufgaben in leistungsstarken Industrieantrieben für Erzmühlen oder Stahlwalzen, als Synchrongeneratoren zur Elektroenergieerzeugung, in Fertigungsanlagen wie Backstraßen oder Fließbänder oder auch im Verkehr, in Zügen oder verstärkt nun auch in Automobilen. Sie erleichtern uns aber auch den Alltag an Stellen, wo sie oft gar nicht wahrgenommen werden. Sie ermöglichen nützliche Helferlein im Auto mithilfe von Servomotoren – Scheibenwischer, Fensterheber oder Seitenspiegelverstellung sind nur ausgewählte Beispiele. Aber auch Fensterrollläden, Klimaanlagen oder Fahrstühle benötigen elektrische Antriebe. Darüber hinaus verstecken sich sie sich als Klein- und Kleinstmaschinen in medizinischen Geräten wie dem Zahnarztbohrer oder in Pflegeprodukten des täglichen Bedarfs von der Haarschneidemaschine, über den Nasenhaartrimmer und Föhn bis hin zur elektrischen Zahnbürste. Da Elektromotoren also in immer mehr Geräten stecken, müssen auch immer größere Stückzahlen gefertigt werden, die am besten nichts kosten. Es besteht somit die große Herausforderung all die Bedürfnisse ressourcenschonend und kostengünstig zu bedienen. Aus diesem Gedanken heraus entstand am Lehrstuhl die Idee, Wicklungen elektrischer Kleinmaschinen zu drucken. Dies geschieht mithilfe der Siebdrucktechnik, wie es schon heute bei RFID-Chips die Regel ist. Es handelt sich also um ein erprobtes Verfahren, das eine günstige Fertigung großer Stückzahlen erlaubt. Erste Erfahrungen wurden bereits gesammelt, hier sei auf [10], [11] und [12] verwiesen. Im Rahmen dieser Diplomarbeit sollen diese Grundlagen nun ausgebaut, gefestigt, sowie erweitert werden. Um einen Eindruck und Überblick zu gewinnen, wird im Folgenden eine Reihe elektrischer Kleinmaschinen entworfen. Hierbei sollen Probleme ausfindig gemacht, Lösungen eruiert und Abweichungen zum konventionellen Entwurf aufgezeigt werden. Im Rahmen dessen werden Berechnungsvorschriften für siebgedruckte Wicklungen abgeleitet und diese schließlich zur Berechnung einer Maschinenreihe mit verschiedenen Außendurchmessern und Längen genutzt. Am Ende der Arbeit sollen ausgewählte Motoren aus der berechneten Reihe stehen, an denen Messungen stattfinden um die verwendeten Algorithmen zu verifizieren.:1 Einführung 2 Der prinzipielle Aufbau der zu entwerfenden Kleinmaschinen 2.1 Der Aufbau konventioneller Kleinmaschinen 2.2 Der mechanische Aufbau 2.3 Gedruckte Wicklungen 3 Theoretischer Entwurfs- und Rechengang 3.1 Maschinenentwurf 3.1.1 Magnetkreisentwurf 3.1.2 Abmessungen 3.1.3 Entwurf der Wicklung 3.2 Nachrechnung 3.2.1 Ohmscher Widerstand, Nennstrom und Stromdichte 3.2.2 Magnetische Spannungsabfälle 3.2.3 Induktivität und Reaktanz 3.2.4 Kraft, Drehmoment und mechanische Leistung 3.2.5 Verluste, Wirkungsgrad und Leistungsfaktor 3.2.6 Ausnutzungsfaktor, Strombelag und Charakteristisches Produkt 3.3 Bestimmung des Drehmoments 4 Ein zahlenmäßiger Entwurfsgang anhand einer Beispielmaschine 4.1 Vorgaben 4.2 Maschinenentwurf 4.2.1 Magnetkreisentwurf 4.2.2 Abmessungen 4.2.3 Entwurf der Wicklung 4.3 Nachrechnung 4.3.1 Ohmscher Widerstand, Nennstrom und Stromdichte 4.3.2 Magnetische Spannungsabfälle 4.3.3 Induktivität und Reaktanz 4.3.4 Kraft, Drehmoment und mechanische Leistung 4.3.5 Verluste, Wirkungsgrad und Leistungsfaktor 4.3.6 Ausnutzungsfaktor, Strombelag und Charakteristisches Produkt 5 Die Maschinenreihe im Detail 5.1 Die Maschinenreihe im Vergleich 5.2 Außendurchmesser 40 mm 5.3 Ein Vergleich mit am Markt erhältlichen Maschinen 6 Fertigung und Maschinenpraxis ausgewählter Modelle 6.1 Vorbereitungen 6.2 Die gedruckten Wicklungen 6.3 Ein praktischer Ausblick 6.4 Potenzial und Ausblick – Steigerung der Effizienz 7 Zusammenfassung A Das FEM-Modell zur Ermittlung der Läuferinduktion B Die Maschinenreihe C Praktische Ausführungen zum Maschinenentwurf

Η παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία, η οποία εκπονήθηκε στο Εργαστήριο Ηλεκτρομηχανικής Μετατροπής Ενέργειας του Τμήματος Ηλεκτρολόγων Μηχανικών και Τεχνολογίας Υπολογιστών της Πολυτεχνικής Σχολής του Πανεπιστημίου Πατρών, πραγματεύεται την κατασκευή ενός ηλεκτρικού δικύκλου. Σκοπός είναι η κατασκευή και ο έλεγχος ενός ηλεκτρικού ποδηλάτου και συγκεκριμένα ο σχεδιασμός και η εγκατάσταση ενός κατάλληλου ηλεκτροκινητήριου συστήματος σε ένα συμβατικό ποδήλατο. Αρχικά γίνεται μια σύντομη περιγραφή των συμβατικών και των ηλεκτρικών ποδηλάτων, η οποία περιλαμβάνει την ιστορική εξέλιξή τους, τα μέρη από τα οποία αποτελούνται, τους τύπους στους οποίους διακρίνονται και τα νομικά πλαίσια που διέπουν τη λειτουργία τους. Στη συνέχεια, περιγράφεται το ηλεκτροκινητήριο σύστημα, το οποίο εγκαταστάθηκε στο πλαίσιο του ποδηλάτου που παραχωρήθηκε για το σκοπό αυτό από την εταιρεία Ideal Bikes Μανιατόπουλος Α.Ε., τα κριτήρια επιλογής του κινητήρα, των ηλεκτροχημικών συσσωρευτών και των επιμέρους στοιχείων που το απαρτίζουν. Ακολουθεί η ανάλυση των Brushless μηχανών, τα κατασκευαστικά χαρακτηριστικά και η αρχή λειτουργίας τους. Το επόμενο βήμα είναι η θεωρητική μελέτη του τριφασικού αντιστροφέα τάσης που απαιτείται για την οδήγηση του κινητήρα. Παρατίθενται τα αποτελέσματα που προέκυψαν από την προσομοίωση της λειτουργίας του ηλεκτροκινητήριου συστήματος μέσω του προγράμματος Matlab/Simulink. Κατόπιν, περιγράφεται η κατασκευή του τριφασικού αντιστροφέα τάσης, τα στοιχεία που τον απαρτίζουν και ο λόγος για τον οποίο επιλέχθηκαν. Δίνεται μια σύντομη περιγραφή του μικροελεγκτή που χρησιμοποιήθηκε, των δυνατοτήτων που παρέχει αλλά και η λογική του ελέγχου που υλοποιεί. Τέλος, ακολουθούν οι πειραματικές μετρήσεις και τα συμπεράσματα που προέκυψαν από τη λειτουργία της κατασκευής. / The purpose of this thesis is the construction of an electric two-wheeled vehicle. The work was conducted in the Laboratory of Electromechanical Energy Conversion, in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at University of Patras. The main aim is the study, the construction and the control of an electric bike. In order to achieve this, it is necessary to design and install a suitable electric motor system to a conventional bicycle. Initially, there is a brief overview of the conventional and the electric bicycles, along with their history, their main parts, the types in which they are divided and the legal frameworks that govern their operation. Secondly, the electric motor system, which was installed in the bicycle frame granted for this purpose by the company Ideal Bikes, Nikos Maniatopoulos S.A., the criteria for the selection of the motor and the batteries are described. In addition, there is a short description of Brushless motors, their types and the principle of their operation. Furthermore, the theoretical study of the three phase inverter required for driving the motor is given. Moreover, the results obtained from the simulation of the operation of the motor system through the Matlab / Simulink are provided. The construction of the three phase inverter, the constituent elements and the reason for their selection are also analyzed. Last but not least, there is a short description of the microcontroller which is used and its capabilities, in order to facilitate the study and design of the structure. Finally, the experimental measurements and the conclusions that derive from the construction and the operation of the electric bike are presented and future improvements concerning the construction are proposed.

The Martin Aircraft Company Limited has been developing the Martin Jetpack for over 25 years. The recent worldwide launch of the Jetpack has enabled the company to step up its research and development programme. The goal of this project was to determine the feasibility of an electrically powered version of the Martin Jetpack. The feasibility of the Electric Jetpack was determined by researching energy storage technologies, researching power cable technologies, simulations of flight times, surveys of electric motors, and the development of a simulation program which was used to optimise some preliminary custom motor designs. The overall conclusion of this project was that the Electric Jetpack was feasible only when it was powered through a tethered power cable, and on-board energy storage was not used. An investigation into current energy storage technologies showed that the Electric Jetpack is not considered feasible when using on-board energy storage, however it is possible to obtain flight for a very short time. The energy storage technologies studied were batteries, fuel cells, and ultra-capacitors. It was found that the best performing technology was the lithium iron nano-phosphate battery. A simulation of flight time showed that this battery type would be able to provide flight for approximately 3.6 minutes. Future trends indicated that the Electric Jetpack with on-board energy storage may eventually be feasible when using a lithium-ion based battery due to improvements being made in energy density and power density. By using a tethered power cable, the weight of the on-board energy storage could be eliminated. This was shown to be a feasible method for powering the Electric Jetpack for applications where the Jetpack needs to only be operated in a small area. The best cable type to use was a multi-stranded flexible cable operating at a high DC bus voltage. The weight of a 5 meter power cable using a 1000 V bus voltage was shown to be 4.9 kg. Potential applications for this kind of Jetpack could include thrill rides and rescue operations from multi-storied buildings. A cable made from carbon nanotubes was shown to be a future technology that could offer a lighter cable. A survey of currently available electric motors showed that none met both the power density and speed required by the Electric Jetpack, even when using a tethered power cable to eliminate the energy storage weight. Because of this, a custom motor design was needed. Research into motor technologies showed that the permanent magnet brushless DC (PMBLDC) motor was the most suited type for the Electric Jetpack. The permanent magnet brushless AC (PMBLAC) motor was also suitable. A PMBLDC motor simulation program was developed using MATLAB which could be used to optimise preliminary custom designs. A characterisation of allowable motor time constants for the PMBLDC motor type was made in order to speed up the simulation time. The optimisation results showed that a power density of 5.41 kW/kg was achievable for the motor when it was located inside the ducted fan tubes, and a power density of 6.56 kW/kg was achievable when the motor was located outside the ducted fans and operated at a higher speed. The motor designs were shown to be within the expected torque per unit rotor volume (TRV) range for aerospace machines. The best power density figures would leave between 37 kg and 42 kg of weight for the motor driver/controller, cable weight, and miscellaneous motor parts. This was considered to be feasible. An FEM simulation was made on one of the optimised motor designs. The FEM results agreed with the parametric results within reasonable accuracy. The parametric back-EMF waveform over-estimated the effects of slotting.

This work presents the direct torque control (DTC) techniques, implemented in four- and six-switch inverter, for brushless dc (BLDC) motors with non-sinusoidal back- EMF using two and three-phase conduction modes. First of all, the classical direct torque control of permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) with sinusoidal back-EMF is discussed in detail. Secondly, the proposed two-phase conduction mode for DTC of BLDC motors is introduced in the constant torque region. In this control scheme, only two phases conduct at any instant of time using a six-switch inverter. By properly selecting the inverter voltage space vectors of the two-phase conduction mode from a simple look-up table the desired quasi-square wave current is obtained. Therefore, it is possible to achieve DTC of a BLDC motor drive with faster torque response while the stator flux linkage amplitude is deliberately kept almost constant by ignoring the flux control in the constant torque region. Third, the avarege current controlled boost power factor correction (PFC) method is applied to the previously discussed proposed DTC of BLDC motor drive in the constant torque region. The test results verify that the proposed PFC for DTC of BLDC motor drive improves the power factor from 0.77 to about 0.9997 irrespective of the load. Fourth, the DTC technique for BLDC motor using four-switch inverter in the constant torque region is studied. For effective torque control in two phase conduction mode, a novel switching pattern incorporating the voltage vector look-up table is designed and implemented for four-switch inverter to produce the desired torque characteristics. As a result, it is possible to achieve two-phase conduction DTC of a BLDC motor drive using four-switch inverter with faster torque response due to the fact that the voltage space vectors are directly controlled.. Finally, the position sensorless direct torque and indirect flux control (DTIFC) of BLDC motor with non-sinusoidal back-EMF has been extensively investigated using three-phase conduction scheme with six-switch inverter. In this work, a novel and simple approach to achieve a low-frequency torque ripple-free direct torque control with maximum efficiency based on dq reference frame similar to permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) drives is presented.

Η παρούσα διδακτορική διατριβή πραγματεύεται την ανάλυση, το σχεδιασμό και την κατασκευή ηλεκτρικού κινητήριου συστήματος με σύγχρονο κινητήρα μόνιμων μαγνητών, το οποίο αποτελεί βάση ανάπτυξης ηλεκτροκίνητου οχήματος κυψελών καυσίμου. Ειδικότερα, επικεντρώνεται στα ηλεκτρικά συστήματα πρόωσης και τροφοδοσίας του οχήματος και εστιάζει στην οδήγηση σύγχρονων κινητήρων μόνιμων μαγνητών τραπεζοειδούς κυματομορφής τάσης εξ επαγωγής παρακάμπτοντας τη χρήση αισθητήρων θέσης. Στη κατεύθυνση αυτή, επισημαίνονται τα προβλήματα της χρήσης των αισθητήρων τύπου Hall και ερευνάται η επίδραση της εσφαλμένης τοποθέτησης ή μετατόπισης των αισθητήρων στα λειτουργικά χαρακτηριστικά αυτού του τύπου του κινητήρα. Ειδικότερα, προτείνεται μέθοδος εντοπισμού και ποσοτικοποίησης της γωνίας απόκλισης από την ορθή θέση, που βασίζεται στην εμφανιζόμενη τάση εξ επαγωγής και εφαρμόζεται σε πραγματικό χρόνο. Επίσης, αξιολογούνται οι μέθοδοι οδήγησης σύγχρονων κινητήρων μόνιμων μαγνητών χωρίς τη χρήση αισθητήρων θέσης, οι οποίες έχουν προταθεί στο πλαίσιο ερευνητικών εργασιών στο διεθνή χώρο, βάση τη δυνατότητα εφαρμογής τους σε διαφόρους τύπους σύγχρονων κινητήρων μόνιμων μαγνητών, το εύρος λειτουργίας του κινητήρα, τον αξιόπιστο εντοπισμό των σημείων μετάβασης και τον υπολογιστικό φόρτο υλοποίησής τους. Προτείνεται νέα μέθοδος οδήγησης σύγχρονου κινητήρα μόνιμων μαγνητών τραπεζοειδούς κυματομορφής τάσης εξ επαγωγής, παρακάμπτοντας τη χρήση των αισθητήρων θέσης. Η μέθοδος αυτή επιτυγχάνει διευρυμένο εύρος λειτουργίας του κινητήρα με αξιόπιστο εντοπισμό των σημείων μετάβασης (μέγιστη ακρίβεια εντοπισμού το σημείου μηδενικού δυναμικού του πληροφοριακού σήματος). Το δε κόστος και ο υπολογιστικός φόρτος για την υλοποίηση της μεθόδου είναι χαμηλά. Τέλος, προτείνεται μέθοδος ενεργειακής διαχείρισης ηλεκτροκινητήριου συστήματος με υβριδικό σύστημα τροφοδοσίας ως βάση ανάπτυξης αμιγούς ηλεκτρικού οχήματος. Η αποτελεσματικότητα της προτεινόμενης μεθόδου αξιολογείται στο υπό μελέτη σύστημα για έναν τυπικό κύκλο οδήγησης εντός πόλης. Αναλυτικότερα, στο κεφάλαιο 1 επισημαίνεται η αναγκαιότητα της αντικατάστασης των μηχανών εσωτερικής καύσης από ηλεκτρικούς κινητήρες στον τομέα της αυτοκίνησης. Επίσης, αναφέρονται οι στόχοι που τέθηκαν για την εκπλήρωση της διατριβής και η γενική δομή αυτής. Στο κεφάλαιο 2 περιγράφεται η τεχνολογία των Σύγχρονων Μηχανών Μόνιμων Μαγνητών. Συγκεκριμένα, εξετάζονται τα κατασκευαστικά στοιχεία αυτού του τύπου μηχανών, υπό το πρίσμα της επιρροής αυτών στα λειτουργικά χαρακτηριστικά. Επίσης παρατίθεται μια συγκριτική μελέτη της λειτουργίας των δύο (2) κατηγοριών Σύγχρονων Μηχανών Μόνιμων Μαγνητών, όπως αυτά καθορίζονται από την μορφή της Τάσης εξ Επαγωγής. Στο κεφάλαιο 3 περιγράφεται αναλυτικά η λειτουργική συμπεριφορά του Σύγχρονου Κινητήρα Μόνιμων Μαγνητών Τραπεζοειδούς Κυματομορφής Τάσης εξ Επαγωγής. Επίσης τίθεται το ζήτημα οδήγησης αυτού του είδους Σύγχρονων Κινητήρων καθώς απαιτείται γνώση για τη θέση του δρομέα και ως εκ τούτου είναι απαραίτητη η ενσωμάτωση αντίστοιχων αισθητήρων. Στο κεφάλαιο αυτό, επίσης παρουσιάζεται μία μελέτη αναφορικά με τα σφάλματα που εισάγουν στη λειτουργία του κινητήρα οι ασύμμετρα τοποθετημένοι αισθητήρες θέσης τύπου Hall. Ως κατακλείδα αυτής της μελέτης προτείνεται μία μεθοδολογία ανίχνευσης της εσφαλμένης τοποθέτησης των αισθητήρων θέσης και προσδιορισμού της γωνίας απόκλισης αυτών. Στο κεφάλαιο 4 γίνεται μια εκτενής μελέτη των τεχνικών οδήγησης Σύγχρονων Κινητήρων Μόνιμων Μαγνητών Τραπεζοειδούς Κυματομορφής Τάσης εξ Επαγωγής, παρακάμπτοντας τη χρήση αισθητήρων θέσης. Οι παρουσιαζόμενες μέθοδοι συγκρίνονται ως προς τα μεγέθη που χρησιμοποιούν για να εξάγουν την πληροφορία αναφορικά με τη θέση του δρομέα, τον τρόπο μέτρησης και τις μεθόδους επεξεργασίας αυτών. Στο κεφάλαιο 5 αναλύεται διεξοδικά η μέθοδος που προτάθηκε από τον συγγραφέα της παρούσας Διδακτορικής Διατριβής αναφορικά με την οδήγηση των υπό μελέτη κινητήρων. Η αποτελεσματικότητα της προτεινόμενης τεχνικής οδήγησης επιβεβαιώνεται μέσω προσομοιωτικών αποτελεσμάτων. Επίσης παρατίθενται και πειραματικά δεδομένα από τα ενδιάμεσα στάδια επεξεργασίας που συνιστούν την προτεινόμενη τεχνική οδήγησης. Στο κεφάλαιο 6 περιγράφεται η πειραματική διάταξη και παρουσιάζονται αποτελέσματα πειραματικής διερεύνησης του ηλεκτρικού κινητήριου συστήματος Σύγχρονου Κινητήρα Μόνιμων Μαγνητών, στο οποίο εφαρμόζεται η προτεινόμενη τεχνική οδήγησης. Η μέθοδος αυτός αξιολογείται σε διάφορα σημεία λειτουργίας του υπό μελέτη κινητήρα. Στο κεφάλαιο 7 παρουσιάζεται μια εφαρμογή του υπό μελέτη κινητήριου συστήματος στα ηλεκτροκίνητα οχήματα. Σε αυτό το πλαίσιο γίνεται μία συγκριτική μελέτη των ηλεκτρικών οχημάτων σε επίπεδο κινητήρων και ενεργειακών πηγών. Στο κεφάλαιο 8 παρουσιάζεται η τεχνολογία των κυψελών καυσίμου με έμφαση στον τύπο μεμβράνης ανταλλαγής πρωτονίων. Αναλύονται εκτενώς τα ηλεκτρικά χαρακτηριστικά των κυψελών καυσίμου μεμβράνης ανταλλαγής πρωτονίων και πραγματοποιείται πειραματική διερεύνηση της λειτουργικής συμπεριφοράς μιας εμπορικής συστοιχίας κυψελών καυσίμου. Τα αποτελέσματα αυτά αποτελούν τη βάση για την ανάπτυξη ενός μοντέλου για τη δεδομένη συστοιχία κυψελών καυσίμου στο περιβάλλον Matlab. Στο κεφάλαιο 9 παρουσιάζονται οι αρχιτεκτονικές διασύνδεσης του συστήματος τροφοδοσίας με το ηλεκτροκινητήριο σύστημα και συγκριτική μελέτη των μεθόδων συντονισμού των επιμέρους υποσυστημάτων με βάση τη διεθνή βιβλιογραφία. Επίσης, προτείνεται μέθοδος ενεργειακής διαχείρισης για ηλεκτροκινητήριο σύστημα με υβριδικό σύστημα τροφοδοσίας ως βάση ανάπτυξης αμιγούς ηλεκτρικού οχήματος. Η αποτελεσματικότητα της προτεινόμενης μεθόδου αξιολογείται στο υπό μελέτη σύστημα μέσω προσομοίωσης στο περιβάλλον Matlab για ένα τυπικό κύκλο οδήγησης εντός πόλης. Τέλος, στο κεφάλαιο 10 επισημαίνεται η συμβολή της παρούσας Διδακτορικής Διατριβής στην έρευνα σχετικά με τα ηλεκτρικά κινητήρια συστήματα Σύγχρονων Κινητήρων Μόνιμων Μαγνητών τροφοδοτούμενα από ηλεκτροχημικές πηγές ενέργειας, ανακεφαλαιώνονται τα αποτελέσματα αυτής και αναφέρονται σημεία που μπορούν να αποτελέσουν αντικείμενο επιστημονικής έρευνας στο μέλλον. / This thesis deals with the analysis, design and deployment of an electric drive system with a brushless DC (BLDC) motor, which is the basis for the development of a Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV). Particularly, this thesis focuses on the electrical systems (propulsion and sources) of a lightweight vehicle and gives emphasis on position sensorless commutation techniques of a BLDC motor drive system. From that perspective, the issues concerning the embedded Hall effect sensors are highlighted and the effects of incorrect positioning or displacement of sensors in the operational characteristics of this type of motor are investigated. Additionally, a method for identifying and quantifying the angle of deviation from the correct position of Hall effect sensors is proposed, based on back Electromagnetic Force (EMF) zero crossing points. It should be noticed that the proposed method is implemented for real time fault detection and identification. Moreover, the already published position sensorless commutation methods for BLDC motor drive systems have been assessed based on their applicability to various types of permanent magnet synchronous motors, the operating range of the motor, the reliable identification of the correct commutation instant and the computational cost for their implementation. A novel method for position sensorless commutation of a BLDC motor drive system with trapezoidal back EMF has been proposed exploiting the Zero Sequence Voltage (ZSV). The incorporation of the proposed method in the BLDC motor drive system enables extended operational speed range of the motor without load torque limitations while the accurate commutation instants are defined reliably within that range (accurate zero crossing point detection of the information signal). It should be noticed that the overall cost for implementing this method is kept low. Finally, in this thesis, an energy management strategy for a BLDC motor drive system power by multiple electrical sources is proposed, as the basis for a FCEV constitution. The effectiveness of the proposed strategy is verified through a simulation scenario for typical urban driving cycle. Specifically, in Chapter 1 the need for replacement of internal combustion engines by electric machines in the automotive sector is highlighted. Also, a brief description of the aims and the structure of this thesis are provided. In Chapter 2 an introduction of permanent magnet synchronous machines technology is provided. The design features of machine components and their influence on the electrical characteristics of these electrical machines are provided. Also, a comparative study for permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSM) and BLDC motor is presented. In Chapter 3 the operational behavior of a BLDC motor with trapezoidal back EMF driven by a three phase inverter that utilizes Hall effect sensors is investigated. The issues raised by the utilization of Hall effect sensors for the commutation techniques are highlighted. This chapter also presents a study of the side effects of Hall sensors misplacement on BLDC motor operation. Concluding this study, a method for detecting the incorrect placement of Hall sensors and for determining the exact angular misplacement is proposed. In Chapter 4 a comprehensive study of already known position sensorless commutation techniques for BLDC motor drive systems is presented. These methods are classified with respect to the electrical characteristics that utilize for extracting information regarding the rotor position and the required measurement and processing units. In Chapter 5 a novel position sensorless commutation method for a BLDC motor drive system is proposed by the author of this thesis. The effectiveness of the proposed technique is verified via simulation results of the investigated drive system. Also some experimental results from the intermediate processing steps of the proposed technique are provided. In Chapter 6 the constructed in our Laboratory experimental setup is presented. Experimental results of the investigated BLDC motor drive system which incorporates the proposed position sensorless commutation method are presented. The proposed method and the experimental results are assessed for steady state and during transient in comparison to those coming from embedded Hall sensor. In Chapter 7 an application of the investigated BLDC motor drive system as a propulsion system in electric vehicles is provided. In this context, a comparative study of the existing electric vehicle architectures is provided. In Chapter 8 the technology of Fuel Cells (FCs) with emphasis on Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) are provided. The electrical characteristics of a PEMFC stack are extensively analyzed and experimental investigation has been carried out for the operational behavior of a commercial PEMFC stack to be clarified. These results provide the basis for developing a mathematical model for the given stack in the Matlab/Simulink environment. In Chapter 9 the architectural interconnection of the supply system with the propulsion system is described. Also, a literature review of the already known energy management methods for pure electric vehicles with hybrid power supply system is provided. In this chapter an energy management strategy is proposed for dual BLDC motor drive system powered by two different electrochemical energy sources. The effectiveness of the proposed method is evaluated in the investigated system via simulation in Matlab/Simulink environment for a typical urban driving cycle. Finally, in Chapter 10 the original contribution of this thesis to the research domain of BLDC motor drive systems power by electrochemical energy sources is highlighted, its additional results are noted and subjects of possible future work are presented.

Táto diplomová práca sa zaoberá implementáciou bezpečnostnej funkcie pre elektrický aktuátor, ktorá spočíva v riadení BLDC motora, po výpadku napájacieho napätia, keď je aktuátor poháňaný vstavanou pružinou.. Celé riadenie motora je navrhnuté v prostredí Matlab-Simulink technikou nazývanou návrh systému z modelu. Následne pomocou automatického generovania kódu bol získaný zdrojový kód, ktorý bol použitý v reálnom aktuátore a odtestovaný v reálnych podmienkach. Cieľom týchto testov bolo overiť reálnu možnosť nasadenia vyvinutých algoritmov v reálnych, komerčne dostupných produktoch.

In the past two decades the core aircraft technology is going through a drastic change. The traditional technologies that is almost half a century old, is going through a complete revamp. In the new “More Electric Aircraft” technology many mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic systems are being replaced by electrical and power electronic systems. Airbus-A380, Boeing B-787 are the pioneers in the family of these new breed of aircrafts. As the aircraft technology is moving towards “More Electric”, more and more electric motors and motor controllers are being used in new aircrafts. Number of electric motor drive systems has increased by about ten times in more electric aircrafts compared to traditional aircrafts. Weight of any electric component that goes into aircraft needs to be low to reduce the overall weight of aircraft so as to improve the fuel efficiency of the aircraft. Hence there is an increased need to reduce weight of motors and motor controllers in commercial aircraft. High speed ironless axial flux permanent magnet brushless dc motors are becoming popular in the new more-electric aircrafts because of their ability to meet the demand of light weight, high power density, high efficiency and high reliability. However, these motors come with very low inductance, which poses a big challenge to the motor controllers in controlling the ripple current in motor windings. Multilevel inverters can solve this problem. Three-level inverters are proposed in this thesis for driving axial flux BLDC motors in aircraft. Majority of the motors in new more electric aircrafts are in the power range of 2kW to 20kW, while a few motor applications being in the range of 100kW to 150kW. Motor controllers in these applications run from 270Vdc or 540Vdc bus which is the standard in new more electric aircraft architecture. Multilevel Inverter is popular in the industry for high power and high voltage applications, where high-voltage power switching devices like IGBT, GTO are popularly used. However multilevel inverters have not been tried in the low power range which is appropriate for aircraft applications. A detail analysis of practical feasibility of constructing three-level inverter in lower power and voltage level is presented in this thesis. Analysis is presented that verify the advantages of driving low voltage and low power (300Vdc to 600Vdc and less than 100kW) motors with multilevel inverters. Practical considerations for design of MOSFET based three-level inverter are investigated and topological modifications are suggested. The effect of clamping diodes in the diode clamped multilevel inverters play an important role in determining its efficiency. SiC diodes are proposed to be used as clamping diodes. Further, it is realised that power loss introduced by reverse recovery of MOSFET body diode prohibits use of MOSFET in hard switched inverter legs. Hence, a technique of avoiding the reverse recovery losses of MOSFET body diode in three-level NPC inverter is conceived. The use of proposed multilevel inverter topology enables operation at high switching frequency without sacrificing efficiency. High switching frequency of operation reduces the output filter requirement, which in turn helps reducing size of the inverter. In this research work elaborate trade-off analysis is done to quantify the suitability of multilevel inverters in the low power applications. For successful operation of three-level NPC inverter in aircraft electrical system, it is important for the DC bus structure in aircraft electric primary distribution system to be compatible to drive NPC inverters. Hence a detail study of AC to DC power conversion system as applied to commercial aircraft electrical system is done. Multi-pulse rectifiers using autotransformers are used in aircrafts. Investigation is done to improve these rectifiers for future aircrafts, such that they can support new technologies of future generation motor controllers. A new 24-pulse isolated transformer rectifier topology is proposed. From two 15º displaced 6-phase systems feeding two 12-pulse rectifiers that are series connected, a 24-pulse rectifier topology is obtained. Though, windings of each 12-pulse rectifiers are isolated from primary, the 6-phase generation is done without any isolation of the transformer windings. The new 24-pulse transformer topology has lower VA rating compared to standard 12-pulse rectifiers. Though the new 24-pulse transformer-rectifier solution is robust and simple, it adds to the weight of the overall system, as compared to the present architecture as the proposed topology uses isolated transformer. Non-isolated autotransformer cannot provide split voltage at the dc-link that creates a stable mid-point voltage as required by the three-level NPC inverter. Hence, a new front-end AC-DC power conversion system with switched capacitor is conceived that can support motor controllers driven by three-level inverters. Laboratory experimental results are presented to validate the new proposed topology. In this proposed topology, the inverter dc-link voltage is double the input dc-link voltage. An intense research work is performed to understand the operation of Trapezoidal Back EMF BLDC motor driven by three-Level NPC inverter. Operation of BLDC motor from three-Level inverter is primarily advantageous for low inductance motors, like ironless axial flux motors. For low inductance BLDC motor, very high switching frequency is required to limit the magnitude of ripple current in motor winding. Three-level inverters help limiting the magnitude of motor ripple current without increasing the switching frequency to very high value. Further, it is analysed that dc link mid-point current in three-level NPC inverter for driving trapezoidal BLDC motor has a zero average current with fundamental frequency same as switching frequency. Because of this, trapezoidal BLDC motors can easily be operated from three-level NPC inverter without any special attention given to mid-point voltage unbalance. One non-ideal condition arrives in practical implementation of the inverter that leads to non-zero average mid point current. Unequal gate drive dead time delays from one leg to other leg of inverter introduce dc-link mid-point voltage unbalance. For the motoring mode operation of trapezoidal BLDC motor drive, simple gate drive logic is researched that eliminates need of the gate drive dead-time, and hence solves the mid-point voltage unbalance issue. Simple closed loop control scheme for mid-point voltage balancing also is also proposed. This control scheme may be used in applications where very precise control of speed and torque ripple is warranted. All the investigations reported in this thesis are simulated extensively on MATHCAD and MATLAB platform using SIMULINK toolbox. A laboratory experimental set-up of three-Level inverter driving axial flux BLDC motor is built. The three-level inverter, operating from 300Vdc bus is built using 500V MOSFETs and 600V SiC diodes. All the control schemes are implemented digitally on digital signal processor TMS320F2812 DSP platform and GAL22V10B platforms. Experimental results are collected to validate the theoretical propositions made in the present research work. At the end, in chapter 5, some future works are proposed. A new external voltage balance circuit is proposed where the inverter dc-link voltage is same as the input dc-link voltage. This topology is based on the resonant converter principle and uses a lighter resonant inductor than prior arts available in literature. Detail simulation and experimentation of this topology may be carried out to validate the industrial benefits of this circuit. It is also thought that current source inverters may work as an alternative to voltage source inverters for driving BLDC motors. Current source inverters eliminate use of bulky DC-link capacitors. Long term reliability of current source inverters is higher than voltage source inverters due to the absence of possibility of shoot-through. Further, in voltage source inverters, the voltage at the motor terminal is limited by the source voltage (dc-link voltage). This issue is eliminated in current source inverters. An interface circuit is conceived to reduce the size of dc-link inductors in current source inverters, pending detail analysis and experimental verification. The interface circuit bases its fundamentals on the principles of operation of multilevel inverters for BLDC motors that is presented in this thesis.