La dystrophie musculaire de Duchenne (DMD) est une myopathie dévastatrice récessive liée au chromosome X. Cette pathologie est due à la présence de mutations dans le gène DMD codant pour la dystrophine. Le rôle de cette protéine est encore l’objet de nombreuses interrogations et elle pourrait être impliquée dans le développement de la DMD in utero. Les cellules souches pluripotentes humaines (hPSCs) traitées par le BMP4 (bone morphogenetic protein 4) nous ont permis d’étudier les premières étapes de la myogenèse dans un contexte normal et DMD.De façon inattendue, les hPSCs traitées par le BMP4 expriment un transcrit long DMD à un niveau similaire à celui observé dans le muscle squelettique adulte. Ce transcrit possède un exon 1 spécifique et non traduit identifié par 5’RACE PCR dont la séquence est conservée uniquement dans un sous-groupe d’anthropoïdes comprenant l’Homme. L’isoforme de la dystrophine correspondante est caractérisée par un domaine tronqué de fixation à l’actine à l’extrémité N-terminale. Cette protéine de 412 kD a été détectée par Western blot dans des hPSCs normales traitées par le BMP4 ainsi que dans des corps embryoïdes. Suite à des analyses extensives démontrant que son expression était restreinte aux toutes premières étapes de la différenciation, cette nouvelle isoforme a été nommée ‘Dp412e’.Cette étude valide l’utilisation des hPSCs pour analyser les étapes précoces du développement humain dans un contexte normal et pathologique et a conduit à la découverte d’une nouvelle isoforme embryonnaire humaine de la dystrophine de 412 kD. L’étude de la régulation et des fonctions associées à cette nouvelle isoforme contribuera à mieux comprendre la physiopathologie de la DMD et les défauts développementaux potentiels. Le modèle inductible par le BMP4, simple, rapide et robuste, procurant une grande quantité de transcrits longs DMD et la protéine correspondante, est déjà bien adapté aux approches de criblage à haut débit et à haut contenu. Une première preuve d’efficacité de ce modèle a d’ailleurs été réalisée avec succès grâce à une modification par saut d’exon du transcrit Dp412e. La disponibilité de cette plateforme cellulaire performante accéléra le développement, la validation et l’amélioration de thérapies géniques DMD. / Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) is a devastating X-linked recessive genetic myopathy. This pathology is caused by mutations in the DMD gene encoding dystrophin. Many questions remain about the role of this protein and it could be implicated in the DMD onset in utero. Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) together with the bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4), allowed us to study the early steps of myogenesis in normal and DMD contexts. Unexpectedly, a new long DMD transcript was detected in BMP4-treated hPSCs at levels similar to that found in adult skeletal muscle. This novel transcript had a specific untranslated first exon identified by 5’RACE PCR which was conserved only in a sub-group of anthropoids including Human. The corresponding novel dystrophin protein is characterized by a truncated N-terminal actin-binding domain. This isoform of 412 kD was detected by Western blot in normal BMP4-treated hPSCs and also in embryoid bodies. Following extensive analyses demonstrating that its expression is restricted to the first stages of differentiation, this transcript was named 'Dp412e’. This study validates the use of hPSCs to analyze early phases of human development in normal and pathological contexts and has led to the discovery of a new human embryonic 412 kD dystrophin isoform. Deciphering the regulation process(es) and the function(s) associated to this new isoform will contribute to a better understanding of the DMD physiopathology and potential developmental defects. The simple, fast and robust BMP4-inducible model highlighted here providing large amount of a long DMD transcript and the corresponding protein, is already well-adapted to high-throughput and high-content screening approaches. As a first proof of concept, an exon skipping modification of Dp412e transcript was successfully done with this model. Availability of this powerful cell platform will accelerate the development, validation and improvement of DMD genetic therapies.

Chez le poulet, le déterminisme du sexe est génétique (ZZ/ZW) mais à la différence des mammifères le déterminant majeur du sexe n’a pas été identifié. Néanmoins, un certain nombre d’acteurs moléculaires impliqués en aval dans la différenciation du testicule (DMRT1, AMH, SOX9…) ou de l’ovaire (CYP19A1, FOXL2, RSPO1…) ont été identifiés. D’autre part, le modèle poulet présente deux particularités que sont l’asymétrie du développement ovarien et la sensibilité aux stéroïdes donnant la possibilité d’inversions du sexe par des hormones exogènes. Par une analyse par PCR en temps réel à moyen débit, nous avons identifié des gènes dont l’expression est sexuellement dimorphique et/ou asymétrique au cours de la différenciation gonadique. Parmi ces gènes plusieurs membres de la famille des bone morphogenetic protein sont préférentiellement exprimés dans l’ovaire en comparaison au testicule. L’étude des effets de BMP4 sur la culture organotypique d’ovaires ou de testicules a montré qu’il était un inhibiteur de la stéroïdogénèse basale et induite par la FSH et d’autre part qu’il est un inhibiteur de l’expression de l’AMH. Résultats qui nous ont amené à émettre l’hypothèse que BMP4 était un facteur « anti-testiculaire ». / In chicken, sex is determined by a ZZ/ZW sex chromosome system, where the female is heterogametic (ZW). However, the mechanism involved in the sex determination is still unknown. Several genes involved in testicular (DMRT1, AMH, SOX9…) or in ovarian (CYP19A1, FOXL2, RSPO1...) differentiation have been identified. Furthermore, gonadal development in chicken embryos presents two particularities which are the asymmetrical ovarian development and the sensitivity to exogenous hormones leading to sex reversal. By real-time PCR analysis, we have identified several genes whose expression is sexually dimorphic and/or asymmetric. In particularly, we showed that several members of bone morphogenetic protein family are preferentially expressed in the ovary compared to the testis. Using organotypic culture of embryonic ovaries and testes, we showed that BMP4 inhibits the basal and FSH induced steroidogenesis and is an inhibitor of AMH mRNA expression. These findings lead us to propose that BMP4 is an “anti-testicular” factor.

Hepatic fibrosis is a serious health problem in many parts of the world. However, its treatment remains severely limited because of inadequate target specificity. HSC are the largest reservoir of vitamin A in the body. They are also the principal players responsible for the pathogenesis of liver fibrosis. Targeting HSC is an effective strategy for treatment of liver fibrosis. The specific association of BMP4 with various liver diseases including liver fibrosis makes it an ideal candidate for targeting HSC cells using siRNA. The objective of this study is to develop and characterize vitamin A (VA)-coupled liposomes for the targeted delivery of BMP4-siRNA to cultured HSC. DOTAP/DOPE liposomes surfaces were prepared by thin film hydration and their surfaces were decorated with VA (1:2 mol/mol). Particle size and zeta potential were determined using ZetaPALS. In addition, the siRNA binding efficiency was determined by ultra-centrifugation and fluorescence assays. The cytotoxicity of VA-conjugated liposomes was evaluated by the WST-1 cytotoxicity assay. Inhibition of BMP4 and α-SMA was determined by real time PCR and ELISA. Their average particle size was in the range of 100-120 nm and they exhibited zeta potential around +45 mV. VA-coated liposomes were mixed with BMP4-siRNA, forming lipoplexes with particle sizes less than 200 nm and zeta potential around +25 mV. The presence of VA did not alter the siRNA binding efficiency, it also had no effect on cytotoxicity, but resulted in enhanced cellular uptake of siRNA as shown by flow cytometry. There was a significant reduction in BMP4 mRNA with VA-coupled liposomes carrying BMP4-siRNA. Moreover, BMP4 gene silencing was accompanied by a significantly reduced the expression of the potent fibrinogenic α-SMA at mRNA and protein levels. In conclusion, VA-coated liposomes were successfully able to target and deliver BMP4-siRNA to HSC. This could offer an interesting perspective for the treatment of liver fibrosis. / February 2016

Hoxa2 null embryos display a high incidence of cleft secondary palate which has previously been described as secondary to altered tongue development. The experiments described in this thesis demonstrate that expression of Hoxa2 does occur within the developing palate, with the highest levels appearing in the early stages of palatogenesis (E12.5 and E13.5). Increased cell proliferation was observed throughout the palate in the absence of Hoxa2, without a detectable difference in apoptosis or the ability of the shelves to fuse. In addition, the palate shelves of the null embryos failed to elevate above the tongue, suggesting a mechanism by which the increased cell proliferation results in cleft palate.<p> Numerous downstream targets of Hoxa2 were also identified in the palate (Msx1, Bmp4, Barx1, Ptx1, Six2, Lef1 and Tbx1). In all cases, Hoxa2 appears to act as a transcriptional repressor. Increases in palatal Msx1, Bmp4 and Barx1 expression have all been previously described to lead to increases in cell proliferation. Hoxa2, Ptx1, Lef1 and Tbx1 may be involved in a novel pathway that regulates proliferation in the palate. In addition, three novel gene targets were identified in the palate, Six2, Fgf8 and Htra3.<p> Together these data show that there is a direct role for Hoxa2 in regulating palate development, apparently through regulating the expression of downstream genes involved in maintaining normal cell proliferation rates.

Hoxa2 null embryos display a high incidence of cleft secondary palate which has previously been described as secondary to altered tongue development. The experiments described in this thesis demonstrate that expression of Hoxa2 does occur within the developing palate, with the highest levels appearing in the early stages of palatogenesis (E12.5 and E13.5). Increased cell proliferation was observed throughout the palate in the absence of Hoxa2, without a detectable difference in apoptosis or the ability of the shelves to fuse. In addition, the palate shelves of the null embryos failed to elevate above the tongue, suggesting a mechanism by which the increased cell proliferation results in cleft palate.<p> Numerous downstream targets of Hoxa2 were also identified in the palate (Msx1, Bmp4, Barx1, Ptx1, Six2, Lef1 and Tbx1). In all cases, Hoxa2 appears to act as a transcriptional repressor. Increases in palatal Msx1, Bmp4 and Barx1 expression have all been previously described to lead to increases in cell proliferation. Hoxa2, Ptx1, Lef1 and Tbx1 may be involved in a novel pathway that regulates proliferation in the palate. In addition, three novel gene targets were identified in the palate, Six2, Fgf8 and Htra3.<p> Together these data show that there is a direct role for Hoxa2 in regulating palate development, apparently through regulating the expression of downstream genes involved in maintaining normal cell proliferation rates.

No description available.

Patients with type II diabetes present alterations in glucose homeostasis due to insufficient amount of insulin (β-cell dysfunction) and inability to properly use the insulin that is secreted (insulin resistance). Combined genetical and environmental factors are believed to be responsible for these dysfunctions and the resulting impairment in glucose homeostasis. The pancreatic gland is composed of exocrine and endocrine tissues. The endocrine part of the organ couples glucose sensing to insulin release. Within this endocrine gland, also known as islets of Langerhans, the insulin secreting β-cell is the main player and therefore highly important for proper glucose metabolism. In this thesis, mice were developed in order to assess the role of BMP signaling molecule and Arsenite induced ATPase-1 (Asna1) for pancreas development and β-cell function. The mature β-cell responds to elevated glucose levels by secreting insulin in a tightly controlled manner. This physiological response of the β-cell to elevated blood glucose levels is critical for maintenance of normoglycaemia and impaired Glucose stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) is a prominent feature of overt type 2 diabetes. Thus, the identification of signals and pathways that ensure and stimulate GSIS in β-cells is of great clinical interest. Here we show (Paper I) that BMPRIA and its high affinity ligand BMP4 are expressed in fetal and adult islets. We also provide evidence that BMPRIA signaling in adult β-cell is required for GSIS, and that both transgenic expression of Bmp4 in β-cells or systemic administration of BMP4 protein to mice enhances GSIS. Thus, BMP4-BMPRIA signaling in β-cells positively regulates the genetic machinery that ensures GSIS. Arsenite induced ATPase (Asna1), the homologue of the bacterial ArsA ATPase, is expressed in insulin producing cells of both mammals and the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (C.elegans). Asna1 has been proposed to act as an evolutionary conserved regulator of insulin/insulin like factor signaling. In C.elegans, asna-1 has been shown to regulate growth in a non-cell autonomous and IGF-receptor dependent manner. Here we show that transgenic expression of ASNA1 in β-cells of mice leads to enhanced Aktactivity and β-cell hyperplasia (manuscript). ASNA1 transgenic mice develop, however, diabetes due to impaired insulin secretion. The expression of genes involved in secretion stimulus coupling and insulin exocytosis is perturbed in islets of these mice. These data suggest that activation of ASNA1, here mimicked by enhanced expression, positively influences β-cell mass but negatively affects insulin secretion.

The cardiovascular system is an essential component of mammalian biology. It is a complex network of various tissues and structures with unique functions. The function of the cardiovascular system is to supply nutrients including oxygen to the various cells, tissues and organs within the body, and remove waste products from them. Given the importance of this role, it is not surprising that there are countless regulatory mechanisms at the molecular, cellular and tissue levels that are required to support this functional system. Perturbations in parts of this system are likely to lead to abnormalities, and thus give rise to cardiovascular-related diseases. Despite the currently expanding list of genes reported to be involved in a variety of cardiovascular-related diseases, including calcific aortic valve disease (CAVD), the functions and associated pathways of these factors in both normal and pathological physiology have yet to be fully understood, such as at the transcriptomic level. In this thesis, a genome-wide transcriptomic atlas of the healthy mammalian cardiovascular system was generated using the sheep as a large animal model. This atlas was generated using RNA-seq, with the aim of further understanding normal gene expression patterns in the context of the known physiology of healthy mammalian tissues. Through this work, I identified novel gene networks and detailed functional clustering of co-expressed genes with region-specific expression and specialised cardiovascular roles. One interesting cluster was highly expressed in the cardiac valves, and shared genes found in physiological bone development, such as bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4), collagen type I alpha 2 (COL1A2), Sry homeobox 8 (SOX8) and bone gamma-carboxyglutamate protein (BGLAP), some of which have been implicated in vascular calcification. Further to this work, I studied the expression profiles of these key cardiovascular genes during development in the sheep from foetal to adult stages. In addition, I investigated the gene expression patterns of various key vascular calcification genes. These studies showed differential expression of genes in the different cardiovascular tissues, demonstrating transcriptional differences between these different tissues known to have different functions. CAVD involves progressive valve leaflet thickening and severe calcification, resulting in impaired leaflet motion. The in vitro calcification of primary rat, human, porcine and bovine aortic valve interstitial cells (VICs) is commonly employed to examine the mechanisms of CAVD. However, to date, no published studies have utilised cell lines to investigate this process Thus, in this project, I generated and evaluated the calcification potential of an immortalised cell line derived from sheep aortic VICs (SAVICs). This novel large animal in vitro model of CAVD was demonstrated to calcify under high calcium and phosphate conditions. Changes in the expression of key calcification genes during VIC calcification was also observed, including increased mRNA expression of bone markers Runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) and sodium-dependent phosphate transporter 1 (PiT1), and a concomitant decrease in matrix Gla protein (MGP) mRNA expression. In addition, the role of extracellular nucleotides and their receptors (P2 receptors), which have been previously shown to be important in bone and vascular calcification, were investigated using SAVICs in vitro. This study has shown that extracellular nucleotides, particularly adenosine 5’-triphosphate (ATP) and uridine 5’-triphosphate (UTP) and other agonists of P2 receptors, reduced VIC calcification in vitro. Moreover, the cutting-edge gene-editing technology, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein-9 nuclease (Cas9), was successfully applied to generate large animal models of cardiovascular-related diseases. In this project, I applied the CRISPR/Cas9 technology to edit ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 1 (ENPP1) and fibrillin 1 (FBN1) to generate two models of vascular calcification and Marfan Syndrome (MFS), respectively. In the ENPP1-edited animals, soft tissue calcification has been observed in the biallelic mutant and homozygous pigs. In this project, I have developed a range of novel in vitro and in vivo tools to advance the study of cardiovascular disease. These studies demonstrate that large animal models are highly valuable in the field of cardiovascular biology. The in vivo and in vitro experimental models described should facilitate detailed analysis of cardiovascular molecular biology and ultimately lead to therapies which will minimise the morbidity and mortality currently arising from cardiovascular pathology.

The extraembryonic endoderm of mammals is essential for nutritive support of the foetus and patterning of the early embryo. Visceral and parietal endoderm are major subtypes of this lineage with the former exhibiting most, if not all, of the embryonic patterning properties. Extraembryonic endoderm (XEN) cell lines derived from the primitive endoderm of mouse blastocysts represent a cell culture model of this lineage, but are biased towards parietal endoderm in culture and in chimaeras. Here, I further characterise XEN cells and show that these cell lines exhibit high levels of heterogeneity. In an effort for XEN cells to adopt visceral endoderm character different aspects of the in vivo environment were mimicked. I found that BMP4 and laminin promote a mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition of XEN cells with upregulation of epithelial markers and downregulation of mesenchymal markers. Gene expression analysis showed the differentiated XEN cells most resembled extraembryonic visceral endoderm. Correspondingly, inhibition of Erk and BMP signalling drives XEN cells toward parietal endoderm fate. Finally, I show that BMP4 treatment of freshly isolated parietal endoderm from Reichert’s membrane promotes its visceral endoderm differentiation. This suggests that parietal endoderm is still developmentally plastic and can be transdifferentiated to a visceral endoderm in response to BMP. Generation of visceral endoderm from XEN cells uncovers the true potential of these blastocyst-derived cells and is a significant step towards modelling early developmental events ex vivo.

Bone morphogenetic protein 4 (Bmp4) is a well known growth factor that regulates gene expression through the SMAD signaling pathway. Bmp4 is involved in many developmental processes and has been identified as an important factor in several cancers, including melanoma, ovarian cancer, and colon cancer. Madoz-Gurpide et al. recently observed Bmp4 in the nuclei of a minor percentage of cells in colon cancer tissues. In addition, our lab has recently discovered a nuclear variant of Bmp2 (nBmp2), the TGF-β family member most closely related to Bmp4. These observations led us to hypothesize that a nuclear variant of Bmp4 (nBmp4) also exists. The results of chapter one report the existence of a nuclear variant of Bmp4. nBmp4 is translated from an alternative start codon downstream of the signal peptide sequence which allows a bipartite nuclear localization signal to direct translocation of nBmp4 to the nucleus. Chapter 2 and 3 further report that nBmp4 interacts with several subunits in the SCF E3 ubiquitin ligase, namely two Regulator of Cullins (ROC) proteins, five Cullin proteins, and two F-box proteins. Due to the known role of the SCF E3 ubiquitin ligase in regulating the cell cycle, the effect of nBmp4 on cell cycle progression was analyzed and the results show that nBmp4 affects the cell cycle by causing cells to accumulate in G0/G1. The association of nBmp4 and the SCF E3 ubiquitin ligase components and the affect that nBmp4 has on the cell cycle suggest that nBmp4 functions in the nucleus by inhibiting the SCF E3 ubiquitin ligase from ubiquitinating target proteins that are involved in regulating cell cycle progression. Finally, the initial stages in the generation of an nBmp4 over-expression mouse are described. The results of this research clearly change the traditional paradigm that Bmp4 performs all of its functions via extracellular signaling and introduce the existence of a nuclear variant that is involved in cell cycle regulation.