O presente estudo demonstrou que a formação de cavidades (breath figures) em filmes de CA, CAPh, CAB e CMCAB preparados por spin-coating de soluções em tetrahidrofurano (THF) foi dependente das características moleculares dos polímeros quando preparados em ambiente com umidade relativa baixa (UR 35%), enquanto que em UR mais elevadas (55% e 75%) o balanço entre a energia superficial da água, THF e energia interfacial entre água e THF foi determinante. Por outro lado, a rápida exposição (de 3 a 6 min) desses filmes ao vapor de solvente teve um efeito plastificante tornando os filmes de CAB, CAPh e CMCAB completamente lisos, enquanto que para filmes de CA foi observado o efeito dewetting. Surfactantes biocompatíveis à base de sorbitano (Tween®) foram usados como plastificantes para filmes de ésteres de celulose obtidos por evaporação de solvente. O comportamento térmico dos filmes foi dependente do tamanho da cauda hidrofóbica do surfactante, do tipo do grupo lateral dos polímeros e da composição da mistura. Tween 20 e 40 mostraram agir como um excelente plastificante para os ésteres de celulose, exceto para o CA, no qual foi imiscível. Teores baixos de Tween favoreceram a flexibilidade das cadeias de polímeros ao passo que quantidades maiores aumentaram a mobilidade molecular dos ésteres de celulose levando a variações de Tg de até 200 °C. Filmes de nanocompósitos de CAB reforçados com nanocristais de celulose (CNC) modificados com diferentes grupos funcionais (acetato e metiladipoíla) foram preparados a partir de dispersões em acetato de etila (AE), THF e N,N-dimetilformamida (DMF). A melhor estabilidade coloidal foi verificada em DMF, devido sua alta polaridade. Suspensões em AE e THF de CNC modificados foram mais estáveis do que CNC por conta das interações entre grupos substituintes e solventes. As propriedades mecânicas dos nanocompósitos, resultantes da dispersibilidade de nanocristais na matriz de CAB mostraram forte relação com a estabilidade coloidal das dispersões. Beads de celulose foram obtidos utilizando polpa pré-tratada de eucalipto, oxidados e utilizados como suporte para incorporação de um agente bactericida QPVP-C5. Bactérias de Micrococcus luteus adsorveram sobre beads oxidados e nos beads contendo baixa quantidade de QPVP-C5 adsorvido e foi observada propriedade biocida nos beads com elevada quantidade de QPVP-C5 adsorvido. Os resultados mostram o preparo de materiais celulósicos multifuncionais de baixo custo e simples preparação para aplicações em meios aquosos com a finalidade de imobilização e ação biocida frente a bactérias Gram-positivas. / The present study demonstrated that the breath figures formation in CA, CAPh, CAB and CMCAB films spin-coated from solutions in tetrahydrofuran (THF) was dependent on the polymers molecular characteristics when prepared under low relative humidity (RH 35%), whereas under higher RH (55% and 75%), the balance among water and THF surface energy and interfacial energy between water and THF was determinant. On the other hand, the short solvent vapor exposure had a plasticizer effect, making CAB, CAPh and CMCAB films completely smooth (from 3 up to 6 min), while dewetting phenomena was observed for CA films. Biocompatible sorbitan-based surfactants (Tween®) were used as plasticizer for CA, CAPh, CAB and CMCAB casted films. The thermal behavior of films was dependent on the size of surfactant hydrophobic tail, type of polymer side group and the mixture composition. Tween 20 and 40 showed act as an excellent plasticizer for cellulose esters, except for CA, which was immiscible. Low Tween content favored polymeric chains flexibility while higher content increased the cellulose esters molecular mobility leading to Tg variations up to 200 °C. CAB-based nanocomposites casted films reinforced with cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) modified with different functional groups (acetate and methyl adipoil) were prepared from dispersions in ethyl acetate (EA), THF and N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF). The best colloidal stability was verified in DMF, due its high polarity. Suspensions in EA and THF of modified CNC where more stable than unmodified CNC, regarding the interactions among substituents groups and solvents. The mechanical properties of nanocomposites stemming from nanocrystals dispersibility in the CAB matrix showed strong relationship with the colloidal stability. Cellulose beads were obtained by using pretreated Eucalyptus pulp, oxidized and used as a support for the incorporation of a biocide agent. Micrococcus luteus bacteria adsorbed onto oxidized beads and on the beads with low content of adsorbed QPVP-C5. It was observed biocide property for the beads with high QPVP-C5 content. The results show the simple preparation of low cost multifunctional cellulosic materials for applications in aqueous media for the purpose of immobilization and biocide action against Gram-positive bacteria.

Notre recherche interroge la portée de la nouvelle politique environnementale de la capitale chinoise, dont la mise en oeuvre a été précipitée dans le cadre de l'accueil des Jeux Olympiques.Si la trame urbaine de Pékin était encore il y a peu l'un des derniers héritages des préceptes traditionnels d'aménagement de l'espace chinois entre "montagne et eau" et se référant au “souffle - qi”, qui anime toute chose et tout être dans la cosmogonie chinoise et qui est à la base de l'implantation de la ville sur son site, les politiques urbaines menées au cours du XXe siècle ont détruit en grande partie cet héritage.La prise de conscience environnementale amorcée dans les années 90 a généré une nouvelle approche au territoire qui s'est accélérée en 2001 dans l'optique de l'accueil des green Olympic Games en 2008. La reforestation de la capitale chinoise a alors été considérée à toutes les échelles, de celle du pays à celle de la rue.A l'échelle de son territoire périurbain, Pékin s'est dotée de deux ceintures vertes. Pour autant, le gouvernement municipal a choisi la voie de l'originalité en planifiant des "ceintures vertes habitées", à 50%pour la première et à 30% pour la seconde. A l'échelle de sa zone urbaine, la municipalité a mis en place de nouvelles promenades paysagères qui s'étirent le long des routes et des canaux et qui font apparaitre une nouvelle typologie d'espaces publics qui trouve son origine dans la réhabilitation de l'axe historique nord-sud et qui a permis outre la réhabilitation de l'histoire ancienne, celle de la réhabilitation du paysage ancien.Des ceintures vertes aux coulées vertes, la qualité de vie est sans nul doute améliorée à Pékin. Ce souffle vert est-il pour autant porteur d'une nouvelle identité urbaine? Attendons encore pour voir. Pékin 2050. Alors ce souffle vert? / Our research examines the scope of the new environmental policy for the Chinese capital, whoseimplementation was precipitated by the hosting of the Olympic Games.If the Beijing urban fabric was one of the last vestiges of the traditional Chinese precepts of spatialplanning between "mountain and water" and referring to "breath – qi" that animates all things and allbeings in the Chinese cosmogony, and that is the basis of the establishment of the city on its site, theurban policies implemented during the twentieth century have destroyed much of this heritage. Theenvironmental awareness that emerged in the 90s has generated a new approach to the territory, whichwas expedited in 2001 in view of hosting the green Olympic Games in 2008. The reforestation of theChinese capital was then considered at all scales, from that of the country to that of the street.At the scale of its periurban area, Beijing has built two green belts. However, the municipal governmenthas chosen an original approach by planning two "inhabited green belts ", 50% for the first and 30% for thesecond. At the scale of its urban area, the municipality set up new scenic walks along roads and canals,revealing a new typology of public spaces that finds its origin in the rehabilitation project of the historicnorth-south axis and that has also allowed the rehabilitation of ancient history and of the ancientlandscape.From green belts to green corridors, the quality of life is undoubtedly better in Beijing. Has, however, thisnew breath of green created a new urban identity? Let's wait and see. Beijing 2050. So, what about this new breath of green?

Trained musicians cannot use the same breath process in daily living as for singing. Also, the normal breath cycle applied to speech is not efficient. Therefore, students who are learning to sing need to know proper breathing techniques. In this thesis, I will describe the breathing process and the correct way to breathe while singing, based on studies of four American pedagogues; Appleman, Reid, Vennard and Miller. To understand the breathing process for singing, it is necessary to study and understand the anatomical system and the mechanics of the respiratory system. Therefore, the first chapter contains anatomical system of breath management. Then, in the second chapter, the specific breath management techniques of four American pedagogues will be examined and compared. Three of them, Appelman, Vennard, and Miller, suggested some exercises in order to develop correct and efficient breathing habits.

The master's thesis deals with the question of breath analysis using chemiresistors as detection elements for exhaled air analysis. Emphasis is placed on the application of fluctuation-enhanced sensing for chemiresistors for breath analysis, construction design of usable measurement system, and its calibration. Compared to the usual concept, which includes various methods ranging from DC processing in time to controlled impedance measurement, this method of signal analysis focuses on the evaluation of fluctuations and determination of indicators of its change in dependence of change in detected substance concentration.

Applications of laser absorption spectroscopy for trace gas detection are many and diverse, ranging from the environmental and atmospheric to the medical and industrial. The aim of creating a spectrometer which combines high sensitivities and selectivities (in order to measure small amounts of absorbers or species that are only weakly absorbing, in a complex background matrix) with a wide spectral coverage (to allow broadband absorbers or multi-component samples to be studied) can be realised by implementing three separate concepts: the exploitation of the strong, fundamental transitions of the mid-infrared; the use of sensitive spectroscopic techniques; and the selection of a widely tunable laser source. In this thesis, these ideas are investigated individually and in combination in order to achieve such a goal. Laser spectroscopic techniques based on optical cavities are used to build a high resolution spectrometer covering a large spectral range capable of selectively detecting low levels of gaseous compounds of interest, especially those of medical or environmental significance. Work in both the near- and mid-infrared is presented, including much of the initial, developmental work which was conducted in the former region. The thesis begins with an overview of both narrowband and broadband near-infrared radiation sources, with a particular emphasis on commonly available diode lasers (DLs). A novel laser source, the digital supermode distributed Bragg reector (DS-DBR) laser, is introduced as a useful laser source for spectroscopy, combining the usual benefits of telecom DLs with a wide tunability (1563 – 1613 nm). The laser can be operated in an internal or external ramping mode, allowing the output wavelength to be scanned or stepped across a desired region. The observation of mode-hopping during the application of the scanning methodology is examined and rationalised. The ability of the DS-DBR laser to perform high resolution spectroscopy over its entire spectral coverage is demonstrated by recording spectra of carbon dioxide (CO₂) over this range, covering transitions from two of the four Fermi resonance components of the 3ν₁ + ν₃ combination band. The results of conducting wavelength modulation spectroscopy on CO₂ are also reported. A system developed for performing cavity ring-down spectroscopy (CRDS), capable of the real-time retrieval of ring-down times (RDTs), is presented and discussed. The outcomes of initial tests performed with a conventional DL at 1557 nm, to study a calibrated mixture of CO₂ in air at various pressures, are given. In addition, the results of combining this system with the DS-DBR laser are discussed. The bandwidth of the DS-DBR laser was found to be larger than that of a standard DFB DL, resulting in the presence of noisy cavity modes. Despite this, the acquisition of reproducible RDTs is demonstrated, with single wavelength studies of an evacuated cavity at 1605.5 nm yielding a RDT of 24.54 ± 0.04 µs and Allan variance calculations signalling an attainable minimum detectable absorption coefficient, α_min, of 2.8 x 10^-10 cm^-1 over 20 s. The ability to perform CRDS across the whole DSDBR laser wavelength range without the need for cavity re-alignment is illustrated, and studies conducted on CO₂ in air, calibrated mixtures and breath are reported. Investigations are also described into the accurate determination of the ¹³C/¹²C ratio in exhaled CO₂ undertaken using CRDS and cavity enhanced absorption spectroscopy (CEAS) on CO₂ isotopologues, an approach which can be utilised as a diagnostic aid in determining Helicobacter pylori infection. The focus of the thesis then moves to the mid-infrared, to describe quasi phase matching difference frequency generation (QPM-DFG) and its use to generate laser light at 3 µm by optically mixing near-infrared DLs. The theory behind this non-linear optical interaction is outlined, and the construction of a free-space QPM-DFG system using periodically poled lithium niobate is detailed and characterised. This DL-based QPM-DFG arrangement has been coupled with the CRDS system developed to create a mid-infrared CRD spectrometer. The results of single wavelength studies indicate RDTs of ~ 6 µs and an achievable αmin of 2.9 x 10^-9 cm^-1 over 44 s for an evacuated cavity. Spectroscopic investigations carried out on methane (CH₄), acetone and deuterium are documented; for the latter species, Dicke narrowing of the electric quadrupole ν(1←0) Q(2) transition at 2987.29 cm^-1 is observed and the integrated absorption cross-section for the same transition measured as 2.29 ± 0.03 x 10^-27 cm²cm^-1molec^-1. The results of modifications made to the system, namely the use of a more powerful Nd:YAG laser as the pump radiation source, as well as a faster detector combined with a variable amplifier, are presented; these include the observation of an improved optimal α_min of 6.4 x 10^-10 cm^-1 over 151 s for an empty cavity. Finally, work utilising the DS-DBR laser as one of the near-infrared sources for the QPM-DFG set-up is presented. This configuration generates radiation covering a wide mid-infrared range (3130 – 3330 nm) and has been used to perform direct absorption and wavelength modulation spectroscopy on ro-vibrational transitions within the fundamental ν₃ (F₂) band of CH₄. The spectrum of methanethiol (CH₃SH) over this region has also been investigated, with preliminary studies identifying a feature at 3040 cm^-1 as a potential indicator for monitoring this biomarker in breath. The results of coupling this mid-infrared radiation with an optical cavity to perform CEAS combined with phase sensitive detection are subsequently reported. Studies were conducted on calibrated CH₄ mixtures and ambient air to examine two transitions of the fundamental ν₃ (F₂) band of CH₄ in order to characterise the system: effective path lengths of ~ 700 m and α_min of 6.2 x 10^-8 cm^-1 over 8 s were found. The ^RQ₄ CH₃SH absorption feature at 3040 cm^-1 was also further studied with this system using prepared samples of CH₃SH in N₂ at different concentrations, yielding a CH₃SH detection limit of 2.4 ppm at 19 Torr. The potential of such a cavity-based, DS-DBR sourced, QPM-DFG mid-infrared spectrometer for trace gas sensing having thus been demonstrated, possible improvements that could be implemented to increase the sensitivity of the system are then discussed.

<p>In order to examine the usefulness of the multi breath helium dilution method (MB) it was compared to the single breath helium dilution method (SB) and body plethysmography (BP). Residual volume (RV), total lung capacity (TLC) and vital capacity (VC) were measured in seventeen subjects with obstructive (11) or restrictive (6) lung disease and four normal subjects.</p><p>With information from professional literature and current periodicals, advantages and disadvantages with all three methods were compared. ANOVA and Student's t-test were performed on the measurement results.</p><p>The results of the statistical tests tell us there are differences among the methods in the group of obstructive patients. They also reveal a notable difference between the MB and SB methods when measuring the same parameter. In addition, it was noted that none of the existing sets of prediction equations fulfill the requirements established on high quality lung function testing.</p><p>Although a thorough evaluation of the reproducibility of the method is still required, it appears to be a viable alternative to body plethysmography. We claim that measuring the above mentioned static lung volumes with only the single breath helium dilution method cannot be considered a satisfactory practice.</p>

The initial aim of the roll out of smart electricity meters in Sweden was to allow remote readings of the households’ monthly electricity consumption for billing purposes. Since then the transition towards a smart grid has become a more prioritized matter. In the roll out of next generation smart meters more attention is therefore given to how the Distribution System Operator (DSO) can benefit from the meter through different smart grid applications. This study uses a qualitative research method to identify three general fields of application and 15 specific concepts corresponding to ways in which the DSO can create added value from the information provided by the smart meter. The benefits of one of these concepts, the so-called “last gasp” and “first breath” functionality, are assessed in a business case. The study concludes that the three main areas of smart meter applications are operating the grid, planning the grid and utility in the customers’ household. The study also shows that the outcomes of the business case on the “last gasp” and “first breath” functionality are highly dependent on the cost of the functionality, however the investment can still be motivated through increased customer satisfaction andimproved outage management. The general conclusion is that the smart meter will play an essential role in providing the control and information needed in the transition to a smarter grid.

This thesis aims to investigate the possibility of developing spectroscopic techniques for trace gas detection, with particular emphasis on their applicability to breath analysis and medical diagnostics. Whilst key breath molecules such as methane and carbon dioxide will feature throughout this work, the focus of the research is on the detection of breath acetone, a molecule strongly linked with the diabetic condition. Preliminary studies into the suitability of cavity enhanced absorption spectroscopy (CEAS) for the analysis of breath are carried out on methane, a molecule found in varying quantities in breath depending on whether the subject is a methane-producer or not. A telecommunications near-infrared semiconductor diode laser (1.6 µm) is used with an optical cavity based detection system to probe transitions within the vibrational overtone of methane. Achieving a minimum detectable sensitivity of 600 ppb, the device is used to analyse the breath of 48 volunteers, identifying approximately one in three as methane producers. Following this, a second type of laser source, the novel and widely tunable Digital Supermode Distributed Bragg Reflector (DS-DBR) laser, is characterised and the first demonstration of its use in spectroscopy documented. Particular emphasis is given to its application to CEAS and to probing the transitions of the two Fermi resonance components of the CO_2 3ν_1 + ν_3 combination bands found within the spectral range (1.56 - 1.61 µm) of the laser, providing the means to determine accurate ^{13}CO_2/^{12}CO_2 ratios for use in the urea breath test. Not all molecules exhibit narrow, well-resolved ro-vibrational transitions and the next section of the thesis focuses on the detection of molecules, such as acetone, with broad, congested absorption features which are not readily discernible using narrowband laser sources. To provide the necessary specificity for these molecules, two types of broadband source, a Superluminescent Light Emitting Diode (SLED) and a Supercontinuum source (SC), both emitting over the 1.6 - 1.7 µm region, are used in the development of a series of broadband cavity enhanced absorption (BB-CEAS) spectrometers. The three broadband absorbers investigated here, butadiene, acetone and isoprene, all exhibit overtone and combination bands in this spectral region and direct absorption measurements are taken to determine absorption cross-sections for all three molecules. The first BB-CEAS spectrometer couples the SLED device with a dispersive monochromator, attaining a minimum detectable sensitivity of 6 x 10^{-8} cm^{-1}, which is further enhanced to 1.5 x 10^{-8} cm^{-1} on replacing the monochromator with a Fourier Transform interferometer. The spectral coverage is then extended to 1.5 - 1.7 µm by coupling the first SLED with a second device, providing a demonstration of simultaneous multiple species detection. Finally, a SC source is used to provide greater power and uniform spectral intensity, resulting in an improved minimum detectable sensitivity of 5 x 10^{-9} cm^{-1}, or 200 ppb, 400 ppb and 200 ppb for butadiene, acetone and isoprene respectively. This device is then applied to acetone-enriched breath samples; the resulting spectra are fitted with a simulation to return the acetone levels present in the breath-matrix. Following this, the development of a prototype breath acetone analyser, carried out at Oxford Medical Diagnostics Ltd. (OMD), is described. To fulfill the requirements of a compact and commercially-viable device, a diode laser-based system is used, which necessitates a thorough investigation into all possible sources of absorption level change. Most notably, this includes a study into the removal and negating of interfering species, such as water vapour, and to a lesser extent, methane. A novel solution is presented, utilising a water-removal device in conjunction with molecular sieve so that each breath sample generates its own background, which has allowed breath acetone levels to be measured within an uncertainty of 200 ppb. Spectroscopic detection then moves to the mid-infrared with the demonstration of a continuous wave 8 µm quantum cascade laser, which allows the larger absorption cross-sections associated with fundamental vibrational modes to be probed. Following the laser's characterisation using methane, including a wavelength modulation spectroscopy study, the low effective laser linewidth is utilised to resolve rotational structure in low pressure samples of pure acetone. Absorption cross-sections are determined before the sensitivity of the system is enhanced for the detection of dilute concentrations of acetone using two types of multipass cells, firstly a White cell and secondly a home-built Herriott cell. This allows an acetone minimum detectable absorption of 350 ppb and 20 ppb to be attained, respectively. Following this, an optical cavity is constructed and, on treating breath samples in a water-removal device prior to analysis, breath acetone levels determined and corroborated with a mass spectrometer. Finally, a preliminary study probing acetone in the ultraviolet is presented. Utilising an LED centred at 280 nm with a low finesse optical cavity and an imaging spectrograph, detection of 25 ppm of acetone is demonstrated and possible vibronic structure resolved. Combining large absorption cross-sections with the potential to be compact and commercially viable, further development of this arrangement could ultimately represent the optimum solution for breath acetone detection.

Auscultation has been widely regarded as one of the most important noninvasive diagnostic tools for clinical diagnosis of the respiratory tract. The purpose of this thesis was to develop a software application capable of extracting the key features of respiratory sound signals from the lungs and trachea of healthy persons. The efficacy of the program was evaluated by the verification of the important features of the sound signals from the left and right lungs and the trachea such as 1) right and left lung symmetry and 2) dissimilarity between the trachea and both lungs. The program was developed in LabView and was designed to capture the respiratory sound signals from the lungs and the trachea in real-time and process them in the time and frequency domains for further analysis. The features compared were 1) signal amplitude in the time domain and 2) power spectra in the frequency domain. Results of the study had shown that the program had been able to verify that 1) the key features of the breath sound signals from the left and right lungs were similar and 2) the features of the signals from the trachea and both lungs were different.

Clinical research is needed to understand how cigarette toxicant yield affects smoker toxicant exposure. While there is much clinical research on yield and exposure in developed countries, there is little in developing countries. Forty smokers completed one, 4-hour session to compare yield and exposure of different cigarettes. Participants smoked three cigarettes under controlled topography conditions: one U.S. 111 flavor, one U.S. ultra light, and one Syrian cigarette, with 90 minutes between cigarettes. Sessions differed by Syrian brand; 21 participants smoked Alhamraa while 19 smoked A1 Sham cigarettes. Blood nicotine and breath CO samples were obtained, HR was monitored and subjective withdrawal and cigarette effect questions were asked. Results suggest that Syrian Alhamraa and U.S. full flavor were similar in exposure while Syrian A1 Sham and U.S. ultra light were similar. Though U.S. full flavor and ultra light cigarettes differed in toxicant yield and exposure, subjective ratings of withdrawal were similar.