This document is submitted in partial fulfilment for the degree: Master of Architecture [Professional] at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, in the year 2013. / Newtown is a vibrant, multi-cultural precinct within the inner-city of Johannesburg. It has become an example of the new diverse multi-cultural spatial dynamics present within post-apartheid South Africa. This thesis addresses a dormant site within this cultural precinct and aims to re-appropriate and dynamically activate the site, thus creating a new dynamic member within the Newtown precinct. Through this architectural intervention, the aim is to explore and establish a central reference point between microbrewers and the public. This thesis’ architectural intervention merges preconceived divisions in brewing techniques (local and international) and starts a process of inclusive knowledge transfer that results in a unique diverse collaboration throughout the craft beer industry. This new methodology will better characterise the diverse nature of the craft brewery industry, whilst simultaneously reflecting South Africa’s nee/search for a new inclusive identity.

Background: Microbreweries are a rapid and emergent alternative in the alcoholic beverage industry. Understanding resource selection, development, and management with their institutional context and capital are critical for microbreweries to develop sustained competitive advantage in a difficult industry. Therefore, using Oliver’s (1997) and Bresser and Millonig’s (2003) integration of resource capital and institutional capital, the researchers identified a gap in the literature and were interested in exploring how Swedish microbreweries select and manage resource and institutional capital in their competitive context and identify challenges to existing literature.                  Purpose: The purpose of this study is to explore and investigate how Swedish microbreweries select, develop, and manage institutional and resource-based capital. The study looks to explain the internal strategy process and factors affecting the microbrewery’s decisions.     Method: The study is an exploratory approach by combining existing theoretical frameworks and empirical data. Empirical data was collected through a qualitative research method consisting of seven semi-structured interviews and analysed with the thematic analysis technique.   Conclusion: The authors propose an amendment to Oliver’s (1997) model that links the empirical data and existing literature. In this context, collaborations and brewery networks are an important overarching dynamic that influences the procurement and management of resource capital and institutional capital. The dominant nature of collaborations and brewery networks is instrumental in the success of the microbrewery in question as it provides access to valuable resources and knowledge development crucial to achieving a sustained competitive advantage. This model can be used in the understanding of the overlapping factors facing the Swedish microbrewing industry.

Masters of Science / Department of Food, Nutrition, Dietetics and Health / Edgar Chambers IV / In today’s market, there is a growing demand for high-quality coffee with distinctive sensory characteristics. An example of such coffees is the cold brew which has become quite popular. Despite the increasing prevalence of cold drip/brewed coffee, little-published research exists on the factors that impact the sensory characteristics of cold brew coffee. The objectives of this study were to determine the impact of a) degree of roasting, b) coffee to water ratio (C2WR) and c) brewing methods on cold brew coffee from d) Ugandan coffee beans. Four distinct coffee samples, sourced from different lowland and mountainous regions in Uganda, were roasted and tested using a factorial design that allowed comparison of all main factors (a-d) and their interactions. The samples were evaluated by a highly trained sensory panel based on 42 attributes from a previously published coffee lexicon. Results showed that all aspects studied (Ugandan variety, roast degree, C2WR, and brewing method) had an impact on most of the attributes. For example, Robusta coffees generally had a more bitter taste than Arabica coffees and the Dark roast samples generally were more bitter than the Medium roast coffees. In addition, coffee samples that were brewed using a higher coffee to water ratio (C2WR) generally were more bitter than the coffees that were brewed using a lower C2WR. However, although most of the main effects had a significant impact, their effects were mitigated by their interaction with other factors. For example, Medium roast Robusta that was slow-dripped with a high C2WR had a more bitter taste than the corresponding Arabica samples however when the Medium roast Robusta was steeped with a high C2WR it had a similar bitter intensity with the corresponding Arabica samples. Thus, although major impacts are critical, individual sample combinations must be considered when evaluating coffee samples for their impact on the sensory characteristics.

This study focuses on the development of new, non-parametric efficiency measures based on the idea of aggregation via merging functions. We use Shephard's (1970) axiomatic approach of distance functions as the basis for theoretical methodology. In particular, this approach is a background for non-parametric efficiency measures defined on a linearly approximated technology set (Farrell, 1957 and Charnes, et al. 1987, and Fare and Grosskopf, 1985). Two new concerns are discussed: the ambiguity in Farrell efficiency measures and the inconsistency of aggregated Industry efficiency measures with constant returns to scale assumption. As a result, two types of new measures (based on the idea of aggregation) are developed: the average efficiency measures (that take into account both input and output oriented efficiency information) and the industry structural efficiency measures via Geometric Aggregation. The existing efficiency measures as well as newly introduced measures are applied to a sample of U.S. brewing industry. The data supports the importance of new measures and the obtained results are consistent with previous studies that use similar and different (e.g., parametric) approaches. / Graduation date: 2000

This report attempts to determine what craft beer can tell us about American culture, and to situate craft brewing within the larger discourse on food and locality. Following political scientist Carlton Larsen, who posited that craft beer associations are creating a “nascent public sphere within the dynamics of profit-driven production,” and that proponents of the craft beer community see it as “constituting a pragmatic, alternative community to international capitalist mass production,” I investigate Austin, Texas’ Black Star Co-op, the first cooperatively owned brewpub in the United States. I also take inspiration from Amy Trubek’s formulation of the American “taste of place,” which builds on and adapts the French concept of terroir. Trubek argues that the taste of place in America needs to be entrepreneurial and based in community, and that “taste makers” in America are engaged in a process of synthesis, blending our nation’s many historical pasts with its present to create a new taste of place. I argue that Black Star’s unique position as both a taste-making institution and as a business based in the economic radicalism of cooperative self-management and participatory economics allows them the possibility of a degree of local influence that goes beyond what Trubek or Larsen had previously envisioned. I conclude by arguing for an expansion of Trubek’s model that would comprehensively chart the taste of place in a single location, such as Austin, Texas, by looking at various institutions in all aspects of community life. / text

In Africa, the grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench), is malted to provide the most important ingredient in brewing, malt, which is used primarily for the production of traditional (opaque) sorghum beer. Malting is the germination of cereal grain in moist air under controlled conditions, the primary objective being to promote the development of hydrolytic enzymes which are not present in the ungerminated grain. The malting process can be physically split into three distinct unit operations (viz. steeping, germination and drying). To date, little attention has been given to optimising the conditions of steeping for sorghum. The effects of different steeping variables (time, temperature and aeration) on the quality (in terms of diastatic power (amylase activity), free amino nitrogen and hot water extract) of sorghum malt for brewing were investigated. Malt quality was found to increase with steeping time, over the range 16-40 hours and the optimum steeping temperature was found to be in the range 25 to 30°C. Aeration during steeping appeared to be necessary to maximise the malt quality, particularly when steeping was conducted for long periods at high temperatures. Of particular significance was the observation that final sorghum malt quality was highly significantly correlated (p<0.01) with grain moisture content at steep-out (the end of the imbibition period). When steeping conditions based on these findings were used, a germination temperature of 25-30°C was found to be optimal for sorghum malt quality. As with steep-out moisture, green malt (grain after the specified germination time) moisture content was correlated Significantly (p<0.01) with final sorghum malt quality. The finding that sorghum malt quality is related to steepout moisture content was given further substance when it was shown that the stimulatory effect on sorghum malt quality of steeping sorghum in a dilute solution of alkali, actually increases the amount of water taken up during steeping probably because the alkali disrupted the pericarp cell wall structure of the grain. Barley malting practices have taken advantage of the knowledge that the exogenous application of gibberellic acid can enhance the synthesis of the critically important malt hydrolytic enzyme, a-amylase. To date, literature on the effect of exogenous application of gibberellic acid on sorghum malt quality has been inconclusive; with reports both of no effects, and of positive effects, on amylase activity. To elucidate the possible control mechanisms involved in sorghum germination, a combined HPLC-radioimmunoassay technique was used to determine the levels of selected plant growth regulators from the groups auxin, cytokinins, gibberellins and abscisic acid in sorghum at various stages of germination. Levels of gibberellic acid were low throughout germination. During germination the levels of the other plant growth regulators declined, but a peak in cytokinins followed the first visible signs of root protrusion. The high level of the germination inhibitor and gibberellic acid antagonist, abscisic acid, in the germ (embryo inclusive of scutellum) portion of the mature non-germinated grains was noteworthy. Based on these findings, it was determined that sorghum malt quality could in fact be improved significantly by the application of exogenous gibberellic acid. However, this was effective only if it was administered during the end of steeping or at the beginning of the germination step. By optimising the conditions of steeping and germination and by steeping in dilute NaOH or in gibberellic acid not only should it be possible to enhance the quality of sorghum malt, it should be possible to reduce the time required to obtain the specific quality, thereby offering a saving to the sorghum maltster in terms of operation costs and enhancing the total throughput possible from the malting plant. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1997.

During fermentation, the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae produces a broad range of aroma-active esters that are important for the desirable complex flavour of beer. The sensory threshold levels of these esters in beer are low, ranging from 0.2 ppm for isoamyl acetate to 15-20 ppm for ethyl acetate. Although esters are only present in trace amounts in beer, they are extremely important as minor changes in their concentration may have dramatic effects on beer flavour. Therefore, optimization of the concentrations of these aroma-active esters in beer is of interest in beer brewing. The number and concentration of esters in beer may be influenced by the fermentation parameters, nutritional composition of fermentation medium and yeast strain type. Therefore, this study investigated the influence of fermentation temperature, pH, and wort nutritional supplements (amino acids and zinc) on the production of yeast-derived ester compounds. In addition, the overall fermentation performance was evaluated based on the reducing sugar and Free Amino Nitrogen (FAN) utilization, ethanol production and yeast cell density. These parameters were analysed using the Dinitrosalicyclic acid method, Ninhydrin assay, Gas Chromatography and standard spread plate technique. The concentration and stability of ethyl acetate, isoamyl acetate, phenyl ethyl acetate, ethyl hexanoate, ethyl decanoate and ethyl octanoate was monitored during storage at 4 °C and room temperature (RT), in the final beer by Chromatography. The expression levels of the ester synthetase genes under conditions that resulted in the highest increase in ester production were quantified by Real-Time PCR. For the lager beer, the best fermentation performance was achieved at RT (±22.5°C), resulting in the utilization of the highest amount of nutrients and production of 4.86% (v/v) ethanol. This was accompanied by the highest production of acetate and ethyl esters, which were 40.86% and 87.21%, respectively, higher than that of the control. Spent yeast density ranged from 2.492 to 3.358 mg/ml for all parameters tested, with the highest yield produced when wort was supplemented with 0.120 g/l zinc sulphate. Fermentations at 14 °C yielded the highest foam head stability and spent yeast viability with a foam head rating of 2.67 and a spent yeast viability of 3.85 × 107 cfu/ml. Ester compounds were relatively stable at 4 °C than at room temperature decreasing by only 7.93% after three months. Of all the volatile esters produced, ethyl decanoate was the least stable, with a 36.77% decrease in concentration at room temperature. For the ale beer, the best fermentation performance which resulted in the highest nutrient utilization was achieved when wort was supplemented with 0.75 g/l L-leucine resulting in the utilization of the highest amount of nutrients (51.25% FAN and 69.11% reducing sugar utilization) and production of 5.12% (v/v) ethanol. At the optimum fermentation pH of 5, 38.27% reducing sugars and 35.28% FAN were utilized, resulting in 4.32% ethanol (v/v) production. Wort supplemented with 0.12 g/l zinc sulphate resulted in 5.01% ethanol (v/v) production and 54.32% reducing sugar utilization. Spent yeast density ranged from 1.985 to 2.848 mg/ml for all parameters tested with the highest yield produced when wort was supplemented with 0.120 g/l zinc sulphate. This was also accompanied by the highest yeast viability of 2.12 × 107 cfu/ml achieved on day 3 of fermentation. Supplementation with 0.75 g/l L-leucine yielded the highest foam head stability with a rating of 2.67. Overall, ester compounds were relatively more stable at 4 °C than at RT decreasing by only 6.93% after three months, compared to a decrease of up to 16.90% observed at RT at the same time. Of all the volatile esters produced, ethyl octanoate was the least stable, with a 32.47% decrease in concentration at RT, phenyl ethyl acetate was the most stable ester at RT, decreasing by 9.82% after three months. Wort supplemented with 0.75 g/l L-leucine resulted in an increase in isoamyl acetate and phenyl ethyl acetate production by 38.69% and 30.40%, respectively, with a corresponding high expression of alcohol acetyltransferases, ATF2 (133.49-fold higher expression than the control). Elevation of fermentation temperature to RT resulted in the upregulation of ATF2 (27.11-fold), and producing a higher concentration of isoamyl acetate. These findings indicate that ester synthesis during fermentation is linked to both substrate availability and the regulation of gene expression. Therefore, it would be possible to manipulate the expression of certain ester synthestase genes to create new yeast strains with desirable ester production characteristics. Results from this study also suggest that supplementing wort with essential nutrients required for yeast growth and optimizing the fermentation conditions could be effective in controlling aroma-active ester concentrations to a desired level in beer. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2011.

Flocculation, the process whereby yeast cells attach in groups and sediment to the top or bottom of a fermenter, is industrially important in many fermentation batch operations. These batch operations include wine, distilled spirits, cider, bio-ethanol and production of commercial yeast metabolites. In the case of brewing yeast, it has been determined that flocculation occurs due to three forces called hydrophobic interactions, zymolectin binding and to a lesser extent, surface charge neutralization. This project sought to more closely study hydrophobic interactions and zymolectin binding. Earlier studies had shown that certain hydrophobic carboxylic acids, 3-OH oxylipins, formed in brewing yeast at flocculation onset. Therefore, these compounds showed potential as an indicator of overall cell surface hydrophobicity, and it was believed that flocculation level, cell surface hydrophobicity and oxylipin level would increase in unison in the yeast cell during brewing fermentations. During lab scale fermentations in shaker flasks and in a miniature fermentation assay setup, both flocculation level and cell surface hydrophobicity increased coincidently. However, 3-OH oxylipins could not be isolated from whole cells or cell wall isolates grown in the shaker flasks or whole cells grown in the miniature fermentation assay at detection limits approximated as 50 ng/0.5 g wet yeast. Due to their minute levels in brewing yeast cells, it was proposed that 3-OH oxylipins may mediate flocculation and aggregation via a quorum sensing mechanism instead of by increasing cell surface hydrophobicity. A disagreement exists in the literature where certain researchers believe zymolectin activity is induced, while others believe it is constitutive. The second part of this study attempted to address this by measuring zymolectin density during lab scale fermentations with a flow cytometer. Because of flow cytometry’s capacity for multiparametric analysis, large amounts of data were produced which gave information on not only zymolectin density, but also cell size and cellular complexity. Upon statistical analysis of the data, it was not possible to either refute or confirm the claim that zymolectin activity is induced or constitutive. However, the results suggested there could have been a population of cells with fewer zymolectins, and this certainly warrants further investigation. During the lab scale fermentations, cell size measured by a flow cytometer appeared to be correlated with manual measures of cell size. Furthermore, cell size tended towards uniformity during the fermentation which has also been observed in similar studies employing flow cytometry. Conversely, the cellular complexity of the yeast in this study did not change as in other studies by this may have been due either to strain differences or the methods used herein.

Thesis (M.A.)--University of Missouri-Columbia, 2004. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 130-137).

Thesis (M.A.)--University of Missouri-Columbia, 2004. / Typescript. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 130-137). Also available on the Internet.