The diploma thesis is focused on the combustion of the low calorific gaseous fuels. The first part is devoted to the characterization and usage of low calorific fuels. Then combustion theory focused mainly on emissions and thermodynamics. Next characterization of burners and their modifications for low calorific value fuels is described. Safe storage and handling of chosen gases is also included in the last chapter of the theoretical part. Practical part includes the description of the laboratory experiment, which was a part of this thesis. It consists of the experiment description, experimental plan, calculation and evaluation of emissions, high and low heating value, density, flame temperatures and heat flux. Laboratory experiment was carried out with different fuels. Low calorific fuels were simulated by gradual increase of the concentration of inert gasses in the natural gas. Increased concentration of inert gasses had positive effect on the emissions. Measurement of the flame temperatures confirmed that the decrease of emissions corresponds to the inert gas addition to the noble fuel. Heat flux and thermal efficiency of the combustion was almost identical for each configuration.

Atualmente as usinas sucroalcooleiras conseguem exportar à matriz elétrica brasileira os excedentes de eletricidade gerados nelas; essa eletricidade é gerada através da combustão direta da biomassa residual da cana-de-açúcar o que requer menor investimento em equipamentos e controle técnico em comparação aos processos de pirólise e gaseificação. Embora o poder calorífico da cana-de-açúcar seja documentado em diversos trabalhos na literatura, em nenhum deles é registrado o histórico de disponibilidade hídrica no solo durante o crescimento da planta; deste modo levanta-se a hipótese que as plantas sob stress hídrico tendo um maior teor de fibra, apresente um poder calorífico diferenciado das plantas que não passaram por stress hídrico. O objetivo deste estudo foi apresentar o poder calorífico, a energia útil e cinzas da biomassa particionada seca de oito variedades de cana-de-açúcar (V1, V2, V3, V4. V5, V6, V7 e V8), submetidas a diferentes disponibilidades hídricas no solo durante o processo de crescimento das plantas através da irrigação por gotejamento (L50, L75, L75* e L100) sob diferentes processos de maturação com base em déficit hídrico na fase final de crescimento (M1, M2, M3 e M4). Determinou-se o poder calorifico superior da biomassa particionada em açúcar, bagaço, bainhas, folhas, perfilhos mortos, ponteiro e raízes de cana-de-açúcar utilizando um calorímetro isoperibólico Parr 6200, seguindo a norma ASTM D5468-02. A produção da cana-de-açúcar analisada foi realizada em ambiente protegido na Escola Superior de Agricultura \"Luiz de Queiroz\" (USP). A análise de variância univariada (ANOVA), de cada variável de resposta, correspondeu a um delineamento de três blocos casualizados com esquema experimental de parcelas sub-subdivididas (split-split-plot); resultando um total de 396 unidades experimentais. Em cada parcela, foram plantadas duas touceiras de cana (réplicas). A média observada do poder calorifico superior obtido para o bagaço, as bainhas, as folhas e os ponteiros, respectivamente, foi 18,16; 17,21; 17,64; e 17,84 MJ⋅kg-1. A ordem de grandeza do potencial energético da cana-de-açúcar é dada principalmente pela biomassa. A energia total média medida foi 1241,87 GJ⋅ha-1 (71,41 t MS) e a energia útil média estimada foi 660,29 GJ⋅ha-1 (36,90 t MS). Estimou-se que em média são produzidas 0,54 toneladas de cinzas por hectare. / Currently sugar mills generate electricity over their needs, exporting the surplus to the Brazilian energy matrix; this electricity is generated through direct combustion of the residual biomass, which requires less investment in equipment and technical control compared with the pyrolysis and gasification processes. Although the caloric value of the residual canes is documented by several studies in the literature, no recorded studies consider their qualitative aspect. This work hypothesis suggest that plants subject to water stress have a relative higher fiber content, thus a different calorific value. The objective of this study is to retrieve the calorific value, the useful energy and ashes from dried biomass of eight sugarcane varieties (V1, V2, V3, V4. V5, V6, V7 and V8) under different water availability in the soil during the growth process of plants by drip irrigation (L50, L75, L75 and L100 *) in different ripening processes based water deficit in the final growth stage (M1, M2, M3 and M4). The gross calorific value of biomass was determined by partitioned it into sugar, bagasse, sheaths, leaves, dead tillers, hand and roots using a isoperibol calorimeter Parr 6200, following ASTM D5468-02 normative. The experiment was carried in a greenhouse at the \"Luiz de Queiroz\" College of Agriculture (USP) in Piracicaba-SP. The univariate analysis (ANOVA), for each response variable, corresponded to a randomized block (split-split-plot design); resulting in 396 experimental units. In each plot were planted two clumps of cane. The gross calorific value average observed obtained for bagasse, sheaths, leaves and pointers was, respectively 18.16; 17:21; 17.64; and 17.84 MJ⋅kg-1. The order of magnitude of the energy potential of sugarcane was given mainly by biomass. The measurement of average total energy was 1241.87 GJ⋅ha-1 (71.41 t MS) and average estimated useful energy was 660.29 GJ⋅ha-1 (36.90 t MS). It is estimated that on average 0.54 tons of ash per hectare are produced.

Os sólidos grosseiros, sedimentáveis e flutuantes são removidos no sistema de tratamento preliminar de estações de tratamento de esgoto e, de forma geral, dispostos em aterros sanitários e lixões, sem preocupação relacionada ao seu potencial de aproveitamento, redução, recuperação e impactos ambientais. Apesar da falta de importância atribuída, esses resíduos se mostram um dos problemas no gerenciamento de estações no que se refere ao manuseio, tratamento e destinação final. Nesse contexto, a presente pesquisa tem como objetivo demonstrar a potencialidade do aproveitamento dos resíduos removidos no tratamento preliminar de Estações de Tratamento de Esgoto (ETE), tomando-se como referência a ETE Monjolinho em São Carlos-SP (com capacidade de atendimento de 258.000 habitantes). Para atingir este propósito, foi avaliada a potencialidade do uso dos materiais removidos na unidade do tratamento preliminar, como fontes de energia e de matéria-prima, enfocando tema pouco explorado. Foram estudados os resíduos: i) removidos nos gradeamentos grosseiro e fino, visando seu uso como combustível; ii) o material sedimentável retido nos desarenadores, com intuito de utilizá-lo como agregado para argamassa e concreto não estrutural na construção civil; e, iii) os óleos e graxas removidos, visando o seu aproveitamento como insumo para produção de biocombustível; e também foi avaliada a degradação aeróbia e anaeróbia deste tipo de material. Em relação a cada tipo de resíduo foi possível verificar: i) a potencialidade da geração de energia a partir dos resíduos removidos nos gradeamentos de estações de tratamento de esgoto, tendo em vista os elevados resultados do poder calorífico inferior (4.837 kcal.kg-1 para resíduos do gradeamento grosseiro e 5.059 kcal.kg-1 para resíduos do gradeamento fino) e baixos valores na geração de cinzas (15,91% para resíduos do gradeamento grosseiro e 9,60% para resíduos do gradeamento fino); ii) a viabilidade técnica, econômica e ambiental da utilização da areia residual, removida nos desarenadores de ETEs, como agregado miúdo na incorporação de argamassas para revestimento e preparação de concreto não estrutural, desde que seja submetida ao procedimento de limpeza e secagem; iii) não foi possível obter biodiesel a partir do material flutuante removido nos desarenadores, uma vez que esse resíduo apresentou baixa concentração de óleos e graxas se comparado à outras matérias primas e grande quantidade de sólidos, sendo esses, em boa parte, de natureza orgânica, em consequência disso foi comprovada a potencialidade da degradação aeróbia e anaeróbia do material flutuante, resultando na redução de carga orgânica a ser aplicada nas unidades subsequentes do processo de tratamento. / The coarse, settleable and floating solids are removed in the system of preliminary treatment of the sewage treatment station and are generally disposed in landfills and dumps, regardless of their potential use, reduction, recovery and its environmental impacts. Despite the lack of recognizable relevance, such waste constitutes one of the problems in the management of stations with regard to the handling, treatment and disposal. In this context, the current investigation aims at demonstrating the potential of the use of the waste removed in the preliminary treatment of STPs, taking as reference the Monjolinho STP in Sao Carlos-Brazil (with service capacity of 258,000 population equivalent). To this end, we evaluated the potential use of the material removed in the primary treatment unit, as sources of energy and raw materials, focusing on underexplored topics. The following residues were studied: i) those removed in the coarse and fine screens, aiming its use as fuel; ii) the settleable material retained in the grit chambers, with the intention of using it as aggregate for mortar and nonstructural concrete in construction; and, iii) the oil and grease removed, using it a feedstock for biofuel production; and the aerobic and anaerobic degradations of such material were also evaluated. For each type of waste could be verified: i) the potential of generating energy from waste removed in the screens of the sewage treatment plant, due to the relatively high results of lower calorific value (4,837 kcal.kg-1 for waste collected in the coarse screens and 5,059 kcal.kg-1 for the fine screening residue) and low values regarding the generation of ash (15.91% and 9.60% for the coarse and fine screening, respectively); ii) technical, economic and environmental feasibility of the use of residual sand, removed in the grit chambers, as fine aggregate in the incorporation of mortars for coating and preparation of non-structural concrete, provided that it is submitted to cleaning and drying procedures; iii) it was not possible to obtain biodiesel from the floating material removed in the grit chambers, since this residue showed low concentration of oils and greases when compared to other raw materials and a high content of solids, largely organic in nature. Therefore, it was proved the potential for aerobic and anaerobic degradation of the floating material, resulting in the reduction of the organic load to be applied in the subsequent treatment process units.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-04-17T14:49:14Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 2605589 bytes, checksum: d958d98e8d432a97a6c6392aa35de6d0 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-09-12 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / This work aimed to study the energy capacity of the cake originating from malt beer at different moisture levels for energy, through description and analysis of economic viability. Sample collection was made in a company located in the city of João Pessoa-PB. Physical and chemical analysis were carried out to determine the chemical composition, where it was found their consumption potential for both animal feed and for human consumption. The immediate analysis showed high levels of volatile materials and low content of fixed carbon. The samples were characterized according to the humidity, higher calorific value and density. Moisture content were obtained (50%, 40%, 30%, 20% and 15%) and gross calorific value ranging from 2656 to 5025 kcal.kg-1 for the highest and lowest humidity respectively. The proposed regression model was able to express in more than 98% the relationship between higher calorific value and moisture content, and more than 92% compared to gross calorific value and density. With regard to economic feasibility, can be seen that all schemes of work proposed for the new working configuration of boilers were viable and the most profitable decreased by 49.98% in the cost of natural gas, that is, an economy R$ 3,900,842.00 per year. You can check that the malt bagasse as an energy source is feasible. / Este trabalho teve como objetivo estudar a capacidade energética do bagaço de malte oriundo de cervevf jarias em diferentes níveis de umidade para fins energéticos, mediante caracterização e análise de viabilidade econômica. A coleta da amostra foi feita em uma empresa situada na cidade de João Pessoa-PB. Foram realizadas análises físico-químicas para determinação da composição centesimal, onde foi constatado seu potencial de consumo tanto para ração animal como para alimentação humana. A análise imediata apresentou elevados teores de materiais voláteis e baixos teores de carbono fixo. As amostras foram caracterizadas de acordo com a umidade, poder calorífico superior e densidade. Foram obtidas umidades de (50%, 40%, 30%, 20% e 15%) e poder calorífico superior variando de 2.656 a 5.025 kcal.kg-1 para a maior e menor umidade respectivamente. Os modelos de regressões propostos puderam expressar em mais de 98% a relação entre poder calorífico superior e teor de umidade e mais de 92% a relação poder calorífico superior e densidade. Com relação à viabilidade econômica, pode-se perceber que todos os regimes de trabalho propostos para a nova configuração de trabalho das caldeiras foram viáveis e o regime mais rentável apresentou uma redução de 49,98% nos custos com gás natural, ou seja, uma economia de R$ 3.900.842,00 por ano. Pode-se verificar que o bagaço de malte é viável como fonte energética.

Atualmente as usinas sucroalcooleiras conseguem exportar à matriz elétrica brasileira os excedentes de eletricidade gerados nelas; essa eletricidade é gerada através da combustão direta da biomassa residual da cana-de-açúcar o que requer menor investimento em equipamentos e controle técnico em comparação aos processos de pirólise e gaseificação. Embora o poder calorífico da cana-de-açúcar seja documentado em diversos trabalhos na literatura, em nenhum deles é registrado o histórico de disponibilidade hídrica no solo durante o crescimento da planta; deste modo levanta-se a hipótese que as plantas sob stress hídrico tendo um maior teor de fibra, apresente um poder calorífico diferenciado das plantas que não passaram por stress hídrico. O objetivo deste estudo foi apresentar o poder calorífico, a energia útil e cinzas da biomassa particionada seca de oito variedades de cana-de-açúcar (V1, V2, V3, V4. V5, V6, V7 e V8), submetidas a diferentes disponibilidades hídricas no solo durante o processo de crescimento das plantas através da irrigação por gotejamento (L50, L75, L75* e L100) sob diferentes processos de maturação com base em déficit hídrico na fase final de crescimento (M1, M2, M3 e M4). Determinou-se o poder calorifico superior da biomassa particionada em açúcar, bagaço, bainhas, folhas, perfilhos mortos, ponteiro e raízes de cana-de-açúcar utilizando um calorímetro isoperibólico Parr 6200, seguindo a norma ASTM D5468-02. A produção da cana-de-açúcar analisada foi realizada em ambiente protegido na Escola Superior de Agricultura \"Luiz de Queiroz\" (USP). A análise de variância univariada (ANOVA), de cada variável de resposta, correspondeu a um delineamento de três blocos casualizados com esquema experimental de parcelas sub-subdivididas (split-split-plot); resultando um total de 396 unidades experimentais. Em cada parcela, foram plantadas duas touceiras de cana (réplicas). A média observada do poder calorifico superior obtido para o bagaço, as bainhas, as folhas e os ponteiros, respectivamente, foi 18,16; 17,21; 17,64; e 17,84 MJ⋅kg-1. A ordem de grandeza do potencial energético da cana-de-açúcar é dada principalmente pela biomassa. A energia total média medida foi 1241,87 GJ⋅ha-1 (71,41 t MS) e a energia útil média estimada foi 660,29 GJ⋅ha-1 (36,90 t MS). Estimou-se que em média são produzidas 0,54 toneladas de cinzas por hectare. / Currently sugar mills generate electricity over their needs, exporting the surplus to the Brazilian energy matrix; this electricity is generated through direct combustion of the residual biomass, which requires less investment in equipment and technical control compared with the pyrolysis and gasification processes. Although the caloric value of the residual canes is documented by several studies in the literature, no recorded studies consider their qualitative aspect. This work hypothesis suggest that plants subject to water stress have a relative higher fiber content, thus a different calorific value. The objective of this study is to retrieve the calorific value, the useful energy and ashes from dried biomass of eight sugarcane varieties (V1, V2, V3, V4. V5, V6, V7 and V8) under different water availability in the soil during the growth process of plants by drip irrigation (L50, L75, L75 and L100 *) in different ripening processes based water deficit in the final growth stage (M1, M2, M3 and M4). The gross calorific value of biomass was determined by partitioned it into sugar, bagasse, sheaths, leaves, dead tillers, hand and roots using a isoperibol calorimeter Parr 6200, following ASTM D5468-02 normative. The experiment was carried in a greenhouse at the \"Luiz de Queiroz\" College of Agriculture (USP) in Piracicaba-SP. The univariate analysis (ANOVA), for each response variable, corresponded to a randomized block (split-split-plot design); resulting in 396 experimental units. In each plot were planted two clumps of cane. The gross calorific value average observed obtained for bagasse, sheaths, leaves and pointers was, respectively 18.16; 17:21; 17.64; and 17.84 MJ⋅kg-1. The order of magnitude of the energy potential of sugarcane was given mainly by biomass. The measurement of average total energy was 1241.87 GJ⋅ha-1 (71.41 t MS) and average estimated useful energy was 660.29 GJ⋅ha-1 (36.90 t MS). It is estimated that on average 0.54 tons of ash per hectare are produced.

Os sólidos grosseiros, sedimentáveis e flutuantes são removidos no sistema de tratamento preliminar de estações de tratamento de esgoto e, de forma geral, dispostos em aterros sanitários e lixões, sem preocupação relacionada ao seu potencial de aproveitamento, redução, recuperação e impactos ambientais. Apesar da falta de importância atribuída, esses resíduos se mostram um dos problemas no gerenciamento de estações no que se refere ao manuseio, tratamento e destinação final. Nesse contexto, a presente pesquisa tem como objetivo demonstrar a potencialidade do aproveitamento dos resíduos removidos no tratamento preliminar de Estações de Tratamento de Esgoto (ETE), tomando-se como referência a ETE Monjolinho em São Carlos-SP (com capacidade de atendimento de 258.000 habitantes). Para atingir este propósito, foi avaliada a potencialidade do uso dos materiais removidos na unidade do tratamento preliminar, como fontes de energia e de matéria-prima, enfocando tema pouco explorado. Foram estudados os resíduos: i) removidos nos gradeamentos grosseiro e fino, visando seu uso como combustível; ii) o material sedimentável retido nos desarenadores, com intuito de utilizá-lo como agregado para argamassa e concreto não estrutural na construção civil; e, iii) os óleos e graxas removidos, visando o seu aproveitamento como insumo para produção de biocombustível; e também foi avaliada a degradação aeróbia e anaeróbia deste tipo de material. Em relação a cada tipo de resíduo foi possível verificar: i) a potencialidade da geração de energia a partir dos resíduos removidos nos gradeamentos de estações de tratamento de esgoto, tendo em vista os elevados resultados do poder calorífico inferior (4.837 kcal.kg-1 para resíduos do gradeamento grosseiro e 5.059 kcal.kg-1 para resíduos do gradeamento fino) e baixos valores na geração de cinzas (15,91% para resíduos do gradeamento grosseiro e 9,60% para resíduos do gradeamento fino); ii) a viabilidade técnica, econômica e ambiental da utilização da areia residual, removida nos desarenadores de ETEs, como agregado miúdo na incorporação de argamassas para revestimento e preparação de concreto não estrutural, desde que seja submetida ao procedimento de limpeza e secagem; iii) não foi possível obter biodiesel a partir do material flutuante removido nos desarenadores, uma vez que esse resíduo apresentou baixa concentração de óleos e graxas se comparado à outras matérias primas e grande quantidade de sólidos, sendo esses, em boa parte, de natureza orgânica, em consequência disso foi comprovada a potencialidade da degradação aeróbia e anaeróbia do material flutuante, resultando na redução de carga orgânica a ser aplicada nas unidades subsequentes do processo de tratamento. / The coarse, settleable and floating solids are removed in the system of preliminary treatment of the sewage treatment station and are generally disposed in landfills and dumps, regardless of their potential use, reduction, recovery and its environmental impacts. Despite the lack of recognizable relevance, such waste constitutes one of the problems in the management of stations with regard to the handling, treatment and disposal. In this context, the current investigation aims at demonstrating the potential of the use of the waste removed in the preliminary treatment of STPs, taking as reference the Monjolinho STP in Sao Carlos-Brazil (with service capacity of 258,000 population equivalent). To this end, we evaluated the potential use of the material removed in the primary treatment unit, as sources of energy and raw materials, focusing on underexplored topics. The following residues were studied: i) those removed in the coarse and fine screens, aiming its use as fuel; ii) the settleable material retained in the grit chambers, with the intention of using it as aggregate for mortar and nonstructural concrete in construction; and, iii) the oil and grease removed, using it a feedstock for biofuel production; and the aerobic and anaerobic degradations of such material were also evaluated. For each type of waste could be verified: i) the potential of generating energy from waste removed in the screens of the sewage treatment plant, due to the relatively high results of lower calorific value (4,837 kcal.kg-1 for waste collected in the coarse screens and 5,059 kcal.kg-1 for the fine screening residue) and low values regarding the generation of ash (15.91% and 9.60% for the coarse and fine screening, respectively); ii) technical, economic and environmental feasibility of the use of residual sand, removed in the grit chambers, as fine aggregate in the incorporation of mortars for coating and preparation of non-structural concrete, provided that it is submitted to cleaning and drying procedures; iii) it was not possible to obtain biodiesel from the floating material removed in the grit chambers, since this residue showed low concentration of oils and greases when compared to other raw materials and a high content of solids, largely organic in nature. Therefore, it was proved the potential for aerobic and anaerobic degradation of the floating material, resulting in the reduction of the organic load to be applied in the subsequent treatment process units.

Technical-economical study of biofuel cultivation is the topic of this diploma thesis. This is a study that includes the technology of growing biomass and its subsequent treatment. Part of the work is an economic and sensitivity analysis, which aims to determine the price of produced biomass. This work focuses on herbal biofuels and their comparison with other types of fuels.

This work examines an electrochemical determination of mixed nitric and sulphuric acid solution that is formed during calorimetric determination of gross calorific value of coal carried out under the ISO 1928:1995 standard. Knowing the amount of these acids is necessary for calculating net calorific value. The named standard only allows use of volumetric methods which are time-consuming. Conductivity and ion-selective measurements were used here which significantly shortened analysis time. Overall conductivity measurement was taken with a 4-electrode meter while nitric acid was measured with a nitrate ISE by known addition method. Sulphuric acid was then calculated according to actual temperature. This research has defined the calibration relations and temperature effect. Several simulated and real-world samples were analysed and the method was evaluated for a possible use in a future automated analyser.

The dissertation thesis is focused on the investigation of the influence of inert gases on characteristic parameters of the combustion process. Inert gases are usually standard components of alternative gaseous fuels such as the producer gas, coal gas or biogas. For a long period some of the fuels were considered as waste gases and their potential was not sufficiently utilised. Compared with noble fuels such as natural gas, alternative fuels have different physical-chemical properties. For example, their lower heating value (LHV) can be lower even than 10 MJ/mN3. The composition of the alternative gaseous fuels can be various during their production process. Lower LHV is a result of the occurrence of inert gases that does not take a part in the combustion reactions. Inert gases have the ability to accumulate the heat. Under certain conditions it is possible to combust alternative fuels on conventional burners, but due to their different properties, problems can occur during the combustion. E.g. to achieve the same heat output as with the noble fuel, it is necessary to burn bigger volume of the alternative fuel. However, the limiting factor could be the burner's head geometry. Theoretical introduction of the thesis summarizes research results in the field of low calorific gaseous fuels combustion and the addition of inert gases into the noble fuels. The thesis also describes the mechanisms of the NOx formation and summarizes techniques which can be used to reduce NOx formation. Furthermore, fuels from alternative sources are categorized and described, including their composition and characteristics. Their physical-chemical properties were obtained by means of the combustion simulation carried out in the simulation software. Two devices had to be designed and manufactured to fulfil goals of the dissertation thesis. The first is a gas mixing station capable of mixing 4 different components. The second device is a burner utilized for the combustion of low calorific fuels. The key section of this thesis is a chapter describing the experimental plan, the performance and the evaluation of the experiments. The goal of the experiments was to dilute the natural gas by two inert gases, namely carbon dioxide and nitrogen. The lowest LHV value achieved during the experiment was 10,7 MJ/mN3. The influence of the inert gases on the NOx emissions, the flame stability and characteristics, the flue gas temperature, the in-flame temperatures, the heat flux and the thermal efficiency was investigated and evaluated. Each parameter was measured and evaluated for three different burners: the burner with the staged gas, the burner with the staged air and the burner for low calorific fuels. Generally, after the addition of the inert gas into the noble fuel, the in-flame temperatures decreased. As a consequence, the NOx emissions decreased as well. The effects of carbon dioxide on the investigated combustion parameters were more substantial than the effects of nitrogen. Each measured parameter is strongly dependent on the burner geometry. The experiments revealed that in most cases the addition of the inert gas into the fuel influenced the flame length (flame shortened) and also more heat was transfered into the chamber's walls closer to the burner tile.

This paper reports a numerical approach for modelling the thermal behavior and heat accumulation/liberation of sustainable cementitious composites made with Recycled Brick Aggregates (RBAs) employed as carriers for Phase-Change Materials (PCMs). In the framework of the further development of the fixed grid modelling method, classically employed for solving the well-known Stefan problem, an enthalpy-based approach and an apparent calorific capacity method have been proposed and validated. More specifically, the results of an experimental program, following an advanced incorporation and immobilization technique, developed at the Institut für Werkstoffe im Bauwesen for investigating the thermal responses of various combinations of PCM-RBAs, have been considered as the benchmark to calibrate/validate the numerical results. Promising numerical results have been obtained, and temperature simulations showed good agreement with the experimental data of the analyzed mixtures.