The search for alternatives to the fossil-based products has dramatically surged during past few decades primarily due to the problems associated with the scarcity of these sources and global environmental concerns. Among those many alternatives, exploitation of cellulose, as a raw material to develop novel products has been a constant attempt since it has never lost its both economic and industrial impact. Cellulose is known for its significant contribution as a raw material and as a fascinating sustainable macromolecule, which exhibits wide availability and versatile chemical reactivity to discover novel derivatives for broad range of applications. Conversion of cellulose C2/C3 secondary hydroxyl groups to dialdehyde groups in the presence of periodate is an extremely useful method for regioselective oxidation of cellulose and to activate the polymer for further derivatization. This thesis is primarily focused on synthesis and characterization of wide range of cellulose derivatives exploiting facile periodate oxidation methodology. The first study investigated the use of periodate oxidation as a potential method to synthesize a novel water soluble derivative of cellulose from bleached hardwood Kraft pulp. The work focused on the effect of periodate oxidation and sulfonation reaction on water solubility, morphology and structure of cellulose fibers. The results showed a significant increase in water solubility (2.85 -28.5 g/L) and complete change in surface morphology of the fibers due to the introduction of sulfonic acid groups. In the second study, the same reaction scheme was employed on bead cellulose to prepare anionic 2,3-disulfonated beads. Due to the presence of negatively charged sulfonic acid groups, the beads were found to be agglomerated in presence of cationic starch, exhibiting their future application in chromatographic separation. In the third study, model primary amine compounds such as methyl and butyl amines were grafted to nanowhisker surfaces following periodate oxidation and reductive amination. Then, based on the grafting procedure, in the following study, gamma aminobutyric acid (spacer) and syringyl alcohol (linker) was attached to periodate oxidized nanowhiskers to synthesize a novel drug delivery system. The final study investigated the application of periodate oxidized nanowhiskers as chemical cross-linkers to stabilize gelatin gels. It was concluded that the chemical cross-linking has a significant effect on relative increase in percentage of rigid protons, reduced water uptake ability and reduced pore size of the gels. Not only did the chemical cross-linking improve the storage modulus of the gels (150%) and but it also increased the thermal resistance until 50 oC.

We studied PLA-microcrystalline cellulose composites, focusing on the effects of processing, particle size and surface modification. The thermal and mechanical properties of these PLA based composites were studied and the effect of cellulose addition on PLA degradation was analyzed. For our system, the degradation rate was found to depend on initial sample crystallinity, pH of the degradation media and cellulose content of the composite. Composites were prepared using solution processing and melt mixing methods. The processing methods influenced the polymer's ability to crystallize affecting the mechanical properties. Isothermal crystallization studies carried out to study the kinetics of crystallization showed melt processed samples to have lower half time for crystallization and higher value for the Avrami exponent. The crystallization rate of PLA was also found to depend on surface chemical composition of cellulose particles and the particle size. Influence of filler surface modification on the composite properties was studied via grafting of lactic acid and polylactic acid to cellulose particles and the effect of filler size was studied using hydrolyzed microcrystalline cellulose particles. A simple esterification reaction that required no external catalyst was used for surface modification of cellulose particles. Surface modification of cellulose particles enhanced the static and dynamic mechanical properties of the composite samples due to improvement in the PLA-cellulose compatibility that resulted in better interfacial interactions. The utility of cellulose, available from a renewable resource, as an effective reinforcement for PLA is demonstrated.

Esta Dissertação discorre sobre a pesquisa de caracterização de palha de milho e a sua utilização como matéria prima para a obtenção de nanocelulose. Segundo o IBGE, este resíduo agrícola foi produzido no Brasil, no ano de 2013, em cerca de seis milhões de toneladas. As amostras deste resíduo lignocelulósico utilizadas neste trabalho foram coletadas na forma cotidiana de descarte mais frequentemente encontrada em supermercados e feiras livres. Procedeu-se, então, ao beneficiamento mecânico, beneficiamento químico (mercerização e branqueamento) e hidrólise ácida dessas amostras, o que produziu os seguintes materiais: palha de milho beneficiada mecanicamente, palha de milho beneficiada quimicamente e nanocelulose. Cada um destes materiais foi caracterizado, conforme o tipo, por menos ou mais dos seguintes ensaios: determinação de densidade, determinação de umidade, determinação do teor de cinzas, resistência à tração, determinação do teor de extraíveis, determinação do teor de holocelulose, determinação do teor de hemicelulose, determinação do teor de alfacelulose, determinação do teor de lignina, análise termogravimétrica (TGA), espectroscopia por infravermelho por transformada de Fourier (FTIR), índice de cristalinidade por difração de raios-x (CrI), medição do tamanho de partícula por espalhamento de luz dinâmico (DLS), morfologia por microscopia eletrônica de varredura (SEM) e determinação do rendimento dos produtos de hidrólise. Nesta pesquisa também se estudou, empregando a técnica de planejamento de experimento fatorial com ponto central, a influência dos fatores razão fibra/ácido e tempo da reação na obtenção da nanocelulose, conseguida com êxito em todos os experimentos executados com a palha de milho que foi branqueada de forma efetiva neste trabalho / The present research focuses on the characterization of corn husks and its use as a raw-material for the cellulose Nanowhiskers production. According to the IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics), in 2013 about six million tons of this agricultural waste were produced in Brazil. The samples from this lignocellulosic waste used in this research were collected in the most usual form of discard found in supermarkets and street markets. After that, the mechanical processing, chemical processing (mercerization and bleaching) and acid hydrolysis of these samples were carried out, yielding the following materials: mechanically processed corn husk, chemically processed corn husk and cellulose nanowhiskers. Each one of these materials, according to the type, was characterized by the following standardized tests (some by fewer, others by almost all of the tests): density; moisture; ash; mechanical property; extractible, hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin contents; thermal behavior by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), crystallinity index (CrI) by X-ray diffraction (XRD), distribution of particle size by dynamic light scanning (DLS); morphology by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and determination of the yield of the hydrolysis products. The influence of the factors fiber/acid ratio and reaction time in the production of cellulose nanowhiskers was also studied in this research, using the factorial experiment design. The obtention of cellulose nanowhiskers was successfully achieved in all experiments performed with corn husk that was bleached effectively in this work

Esta Dissertação discorre sobre a pesquisa de caracterização de palha de milho e a sua utilização como matéria prima para a obtenção de nanocelulose. Segundo o IBGE, este resíduo agrícola foi produzido no Brasil, no ano de 2013, em cerca de seis milhões de toneladas. As amostras deste resíduo lignocelulósico utilizadas neste trabalho foram coletadas na forma cotidiana de descarte mais frequentemente encontrada em supermercados e feiras livres. Procedeu-se, então, ao beneficiamento mecânico, beneficiamento químico (mercerização e branqueamento) e hidrólise ácida dessas amostras, o que produziu os seguintes materiais: palha de milho beneficiada mecanicamente, palha de milho beneficiada quimicamente e nanocelulose. Cada um destes materiais foi caracterizado, conforme o tipo, por menos ou mais dos seguintes ensaios: determinação de densidade, determinação de umidade, determinação do teor de cinzas, resistência à tração, determinação do teor de extraíveis, determinação do teor de holocelulose, determinação do teor de hemicelulose, determinação do teor de alfacelulose, determinação do teor de lignina, análise termogravimétrica (TGA), espectroscopia por infravermelho por transformada de Fourier (FTIR), índice de cristalinidade por difração de raios-x (CrI), medição do tamanho de partícula por espalhamento de luz dinâmico (DLS), morfologia por microscopia eletrônica de varredura (SEM) e determinação do rendimento dos produtos de hidrólise. Nesta pesquisa também se estudou, empregando a técnica de planejamento de experimento fatorial com ponto central, a influência dos fatores razão fibra/ácido e tempo da reação na obtenção da nanocelulose, conseguida com êxito em todos os experimentos executados com a palha de milho que foi branqueada de forma efetiva neste trabalho / The present research focuses on the characterization of corn husks and its use as a raw-material for the cellulose Nanowhiskers production. According to the IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics), in 2013 about six million tons of this agricultural waste were produced in Brazil. The samples from this lignocellulosic waste used in this research were collected in the most usual form of discard found in supermarkets and street markets. After that, the mechanical processing, chemical processing (mercerization and bleaching) and acid hydrolysis of these samples were carried out, yielding the following materials: mechanically processed corn husk, chemically processed corn husk and cellulose nanowhiskers. Each one of these materials, according to the type, was characterized by the following standardized tests (some by fewer, others by almost all of the tests): density; moisture; ash; mechanical property; extractible, hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin contents; thermal behavior by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), crystallinity index (CrI) by X-ray diffraction (XRD), distribution of particle size by dynamic light scanning (DLS); morphology by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and determination of the yield of the hydrolysis products. The influence of the factors fiber/acid ratio and reaction time in the production of cellulose nanowhiskers was also studied in this research, using the factorial experiment design. The obtention of cellulose nanowhiskers was successfully achieved in all experiments performed with corn husk that was bleached effectively in this work

El presente trabajo tiene por objetivo estudiar las aplicaciones de los nanocristales o ¿nanowhiskers¿ extraídos mediante hidrólisis ácida de celulosa bacteriana (BCNW) para el desarrollo de materiales poliméricos y biopoliméricos con propiedades mejoradas para su uso en aplicaciones de envasado de alimentos. En primer lugar se estudió y optimizó el proceso de extracción de BCNW. Se desarrolló un procedimiento de extracción con ácido sulfúrico, que permitió obtener nanocristales con elevada relación de aspecto y cristalinidad y al mismo tiempo, un elevado rendimiento de extracción. Este procedimiento comprende una posterior etapa de neutralización que resultó ser necesaria para garantizar la estabilidad térmica de los nanocristales. El siguiente paso consistió en la formulación de materiales nanocompuestos con propiedades mejoradas incorporando BCNW en diferentes matrices plásticas, en concreto copolímeros de etileno-alcohol vinílico (EVOH), ácido poliláctico (PLA) y polihidroxialcanoatos (PHAs). Mediante las técnicas de electroestirado y estirado por soplado se generaron fibras híbridas de EVOH y PLA con BCNW. La incorporación de BCNW en las disoluciones empleadas para producir fibras modificó significativamente sus propiedades (viscosidad, tensión superficial y conductividad) y por tanto, la morfología de las fibras se vio afectada. Además, se generaron fibras con propiedades antimicrobianas mediante la incorporación de aditivos, maximizando el efecto antimicrobiano con la adición de sustancias de carácter hidrofílico. Seguidamente, se produjeron nanocompuestos por mezclado en fundido y se desarrollaron técnicas de pre-incorporación de BCNW para evitar la aglomeración de los mismos no sólo en matrices hidrofílicas como el EVOH, sino también en matrices hidrofóbicas como el PLA. La dispersión óptima de BCNW resultó en una mejora de las propiedades mecánicas y de barrera de los nanocompuestos. También se estudió la modificación de la superficie de los nanocristales mediante copolimerización con poli(glicidil metacrilato) para mejorar la compatibilidad de BCNW con una matriz hidrofóbica como el PLA. Se incluyen además los primeros resultados obtenidos en cuanto a la producción de nanobiocompuestos sintetizados por microorganismos, que consisten en PHAs con diferentes contenidos de hidroxivalerato reforzados con BCNW. Por último, se desarrollaron películas con propiedades de alta barrera basadas en películas de BCNW recubiertas con capas hidrofóbicas. El recubrimiento mediante la deposición de fibras por electrospinning seguido de homogeneización por calentamiento garantizó una buena adhesión entre las diferentes capas, protegiendo así las películas de BCNW del efecto negativo de la humedad. / Martínez Sanz, M. (2013). Bacterial cellulose nanowhiskers to enhance the properties of plastics and bioplastics of interest in food packaging [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/30312 / Premios Extraordinarios de tesis doctorales