Introducción La anemia en mujeres en edad fértil sigue siendo un problema de salud pública a nivel mundial. Las intervenciones con enfoque biomédico no son suficientes para solucionar dicho problema, ya que también está ligada a los determinantes sociales. Objetivo Determinar la desigualdad en la distribución en prevalencia de anemia en mujeres en edad fértil a nivel mundial en los años 2000, 2005, 2010 y 2015. Métodos Se realizó un estudio ecológico a nivel mundial. Se utilizó la base de datos del Banco Mundial para los años 2000, 2005, 2010 y 2015; de donde se obtuvo la prevalencia de anemia en mujeres en edad fértil y los indicadores sociales gasto en salud per cápita y expectativa de vida al nacer. Se calcularon las métricas estándar de brecha y gradiente de desigualdad social en la prevalencia de anemia. Resultados La distribución en la prevalencia de anemia en mujeres en edad fértil a nivel mundial es desigual. La prevalencia es mayor en los países con menor expectativa de vida al nacer y gasto en salud. El 20% de países con menor expectativa de vida al nacer y gasto en salud per cápita concentran el 30% de la prevalencia de anemia en mujeres en edad fértil. Conclusiones La desigualdad en la prevalencia de anemia ha disminuido a nivel mundial. Es importante considerar los determinantes sociales, para seguir disminuyendo la desigualdad y por ende la prevalencia de anemia. Es importante mejorar las estrategias que se están tomando actualmente. / Introduction Anemia in women of childbearing age continues to be a public health problem worldwide. Interventions with a biomedical approach are not enough to solve this problem since it is also linked to social determinants. Objective To determine the inequality in the distribution in the prevalence of anemia in women of childbearing age worldwide in the years 2000, 2005, 2010 and 2015. Methods A worldwide ecological study was carried out. The World Bank database was used for the years 2000, 2005, 2010 and 2015; from which the prevalence of anemia in women of childbearing age and the social indicators for health expenditure per capita and life expectancy at birth were obtained. The standard metrics of gap and gradient of social inequality in the prevalence of anemia were calculated. Results The distribution in the prevalence of anemia in women of childbearing age is unequal worldwide. The prevalence is higher in countries with lower life expectancy at birth and health spending. The 20% of countries with the lowest life expectancy at birth and health spending per capita account for 30% of the prevalence of anemia in women of childbearing age. Conclusions Inequality in the prevalence of anemia has decreased worldwide. It is important to consider social determinants, to continue reducing inequality and therefore the prevalence of anemia. It is important to improve the strategies that are currently being taken. / Tesis

I focus on the nature of the discourses of the birth themselves and on the form of their controversies, which are tied to their confrontations in Czech web articles. I examine the discourses and their strife in the articles of active participants of the dispute and on the most popular website in the articles dedicated to (future) parents. The discourse of the actively medically controlled delivery, perceives a birth as an inscrutable risky phenomenon which is medically necessary to keep always in a hospital with a staffing and material background to deal with possible complications. This discourse criticizes the births that are led outside hospitals. The discourse of the natural birth sees a birth as a natural part of life, during which usually no complications occur, if there is present a trained expert, who does not interfere in the natural process of labor, except any required medical reasons. A natural birth can be taken place in home. The reader are warned by this discourse on the improper routine care in Czech hospitals, which is inconsistent with the needs of the mother and the child, and on complications of a birth caused by the active medical leading of labor. The articles on the popular website are mainly influenced by the discourse of the actively medically controlled birth. These...

[pt] O objetivo desta tese é avaliar as semelhanças e diferenças das motivações para a parentalidade (MP) em uma amostra de homens e mulheres adultos dos países do Brasil e do Peru. Especificamente, os objetivos foram investigar as relações do MP com variáveis biosociodemográficas (ex. Sexo, idade, inserção no trabalho, estado civil, número de irmãos, cuidado de irmãos mais novos na infância ou adolescência), psicológicas (positividade, religiosidade, personalidade), relacional (ajustamento diádico e suporte familiar) e reprodutivo (desejos reprodutivos). A amostra total foi de 4014 indivíduos; 2029 peruanos (68,1 porcento mulheres) de 22 departamentos do país e 1985 brasileiros (83,6 porcento mulheres) de 27 estados diferentes. O objetivo do Capítulo I é descrever o estado da arte no estudo das MP por meio de uma revisão sistemática e duas revisões teóricas que visam descrever as principais teorias que explicam as MP, as evidências empíricas que as sustentam e a descrição do modelo Trait-Desires-Intenção-Behaviour utilizado como base teórica para esta tese. O capítulo II, composto por três artigos psicométricos, descreve a adaptação e análise de validade do Childbearing Motivation Questionnaire (CBQ) (Miller, 1995) para seu uso no Brasil e no Peru e testa a possibilidade de uso dessa escala para estudos transculturais nos dois países. O capítulo III, composto por dois artigos empíricos, analisa as motivações positivas (MPP) e negativas (MPN) para a parentalidade na população brasileira e peruana respectivamente, analisando suas relações com variáveis sociodemográficas, relacionadas à infância, características pessoais e relacionamento. Finalmente, o capítulo IV, por meio de três artigos transculturais, fornece dados sobre as diferenças e semelhanças das MPP e seus variáveis preditivas e também a relação do MPP com os desejos reprodutivos no Brasil e no Peru. Notamos a necessidade de continuidade dos estudos sobre o assunto. Esta tese tem como objetivo contribuir para a área da psicologia reprodutiva ao fornecer um instrumento de mensuração das MP para uso no contexto peruano e brasileiro e por apresentar resultados nunca antes discutidos na literatura latino-americana da área. / [en] The objective of this thesis is to evaluate the similarities and differences of the childbearing motivations (CM) in a sample of adult men and women from the countries of Brazil and Peru. Specifically, the objectives were to investigate the relationships of the CM with biosociodemographic variables (ex. Sex, age, work, marital status, number of siblings, care of younger siblings in childhood or adolescence), psychological (positivity, religiosity, personality), relational (dyadic adjustment and family support) and reproductive (reproductive desires).The total sample was 4014 subjects; 2029 Peruvians (68.1 percent women) from 22 departments of the country and 1985 Brazilians (83.6 percent women) from 27 different states. Chapter I aims to describe the state of the art in the study of CM through a systematic review and two theoretical reviews that aim to describe the main theories that explain CM, the empirical evidence that supports them and the description of the model Trait - Desires-Intentions-Behaviors used as the theoretical basis of this thesis. Chapter II, composed of three psychometric articles, describes the adaptation and validity analysis of the Childbearing Motivation Questionnaire (CBQ) (Miller, 1995) for use in Brazil and Peru and tests the possibility of using this scale for cross-cultural studies in both countries. Chapter III, composed of two empirical articles, analyzes the positive (PCM) and negative (NCM) childbearing motivations for parenting in the Brazilian and Peruvian population respectively, analyzing their relationships with sociodemographic variables, related to childhood, personal characteristics and couple relationship. Finally, chapter IV, through three cross-cultural articles, provides data on the differences and similarities of PCM and predictor variables of PCM and as well as the relationship of PCM with reproductive desires in Brazil and Peru. We note the need for continuity of studies on this subject. This thesis aims to contribute to the area of reproductive psychology by providing an instrument to measure CM for use in the Peruvian and Brazilian context and by presenting results never before discussed in the Latin American literature in this field. / [es] La presente tesis tiene como objetivo evaluar las semejanzas y diferencias de las motivaciones para la parentalidad (MP) en una muestra de hombres y mujeres adultos de los países de Brasil y Perú. Específicamente, los objetivos fueron investigar las relaciones de las MP con variables biosociodemográficas (ex. sexo, edad, inserción en el estado de trabajo, estado civil, número de hermanos, cuidado de hermanos menores en la infancia o adolescencia), psicológicas (positividad, religiosidad, personalidad), relacionales (ajustamiento diádico y soporte familiar) y reproductivos (deseos reproductivos). La muestra total fue de 4014 sujetos; 2029 peruanos (68.1 por ciento mujeres) de 22 departamentos del país y 1985 brasileros (83.6 por ciento mujeres) de 27 diferentes estados. El capítulo I tiene por objetivo describir el estado del arte del estudio de las MP por medio de una revisión sistemática y dos revisiones teóricas que apuntan a describir las principales teorías que explican las MP, las evidencias empíricas que las sustentan y la descripción del modelo Trait-Desires- Intentions-Behaviors usado como base teórica de la presente tesis. El capítulo II, compuesto por tres artículos psicométricos, describe la adaptación y análisis de validez del Childbearing Motivation Questionnaire (CBQ) (Miller, 1995) para su uso en Brasil y Perú y testa la posibilidad de utilizar esta escala para estudios transculturales en ambos países. El capítulo III, compuesto por dos artículos empíricos, hace un análisis de las motivacines para la parentalidad positivas (MPP) y negativas (MPN), en la población brasilera y peruana respectivamente, analizando sus relaciones con variables sociodemográficas, relacionadas a infancia, características personales y relación de pareja. Finalmente el capítulo IV, a través de tres artículos transculturales, brinda datos sobre las diferencias y semejanzas de las MPP y variables predictoras de las MPP y así como de la relación de las MPP con los deseos reproductivos en Brasil y Perú. Apuntamos la necesidad de continuidad de los estudios sobre esta temática. Esta tesis pretende contribuir al área de la psicología reproductiva proporcionando un instrumento de medida de las MP para su uso en el contexto peruano y brasilero y al presentar resultados nunca antes discutidos en la literatura latino-americana en este campo.

Deterrents to family planning practices were investigated among Swazi women between 1999- 2001. A total of 171 adolescents, women and men participated in focus group interviews. Information obtained in this way served as a framework for designing structured interview schedules. The views of 205 women were investigated, concerning factors deterring them from using family planning practices by means of conducting face to face studied interviews. Qualitative data were analysed using the NU*DIST and for the quantitative data the SPPS computer programs were used respectively. The results revealed that socio-cultural deterrents to family planning included high cultural value of children determining women's social status, the lack of knowledge about contraceptives, women's dependence on their husbands' decisions concerning reproductive issues and inefficient family planning services. Recommendations included that specific adolescent reproductive health services should be instituted and that the policy on reproductive health for Swaziland be revised. Reproductive health issues should be addressed in the school curriculum. All Swazi men and women, both adolescents and adults, should be educated about contraceptives. / Health Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Advanced Nursing Sciences)

Deterrents to family planning practices were investigated among Swazi women between 1999- 2001. A total of 171 adolescents, women and men participated in focus group interviews. Information obtained in this way served as a framework for designing structured interview schedules. The views of 205 women were investigated, concerning factors deterring them from using family planning practices by means of conducting face to face studied interviews. Qualitative data were analysed using the NU*DIST and for the quantitative data the SPPS computer programs were used respectively. The results revealed that socio-cultural deterrents to family planning included high cultural value of children determining women's social status, the lack of knowledge about contraceptives, women's dependence on their husbands' decisions concerning reproductive issues and inefficient family planning services. Recommendations included that specific adolescent reproductive health services should be instituted and that the policy on reproductive health for Swaziland be revised. Reproductive health issues should be addressed in the school curriculum. All Swazi men and women, both adolescents and adults, should be educated about contraceptives. / Health Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Advanced Nursing Sciences)

The study was conducted with the aim of assessing the Saudi Arabian cultural knowledge among the non-Muslim nurses. These nurses work in the obstetric units at the King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Jeddah and come from different cultural groups and are caring for the Saudi Arabian Muslim women. In order for care to be congruent, comprehensive and of a high quality, the patients' needs should be met at the best attainable level. Nurses in all health care settings are expected to demonstrate knowledge of the culture that they serve in order to eliminate barriers. Data analysis was facilitated with the use of the SPSS 11.5 computer program. The study findings may suggest the development of educational guidelines, which will direct the activities of an educational intervention. / Health Studies / M.A. (Health Studies))

This study explores and critically analyses the lived experiences of female inmates in six selected prisons in Cameroon. The study contributes to the available knowledge regarding prison conditions from the perspectives of female inmates– a subject which has been under researched globally and has received little attention from researchers in Cameroon. The Cameroon Penitentiary Regulation (CPR) professes to be gender neutral and, therefore, it ignores the special needs of female inmates. The central research question is: How do the national policies and laws on prison conditions in Cameroon relate to the lived and narrated experiences of female inmates? The study is informed by two major frameworks, namely, Foucault’s analytical framework from his seminal work Discipline and Punish (1977) and a feminist analytical framework, standpoint feminism, which fills the gap in Foucault’s thesis that is largely devoid of gender analysis. The study is qualitative, using in-depth interviews and observations. It involved a sample of 38 research participants, comprising 18 female inmates, 18 prison staff members and two NGO representatives. The findings reveal that both international and national ratified policies are merely “paperwork”, lacking effective implementation in the prisons selected for this study. There is a general lack of infrastructural facilities in prisons and this prevents classification as suggested by the CPR 1992 and ratified international instruments. In general, there was a lack of educational and other training facilities in all the prisons visited. The few educational facilities available were those supported by NGOs and FBOs, suggesting that, without their presence in prisons, prison conditions would have been even more appalling than the findings revealed. Torture and corporal punishment were meted out to female inmates, regardless of the regular visits by human rights organisations to prisons. There are no provisions made for conjugal visits in the prisons. Same-sex relationships exist in Cameroonian prisons, either because of sexual preference or as a substitute for heterosexual relationships. The reform of the dated CPR 1992 and the Cameroon Penal Code 1967 is essential. Such reform should take into consideration both the specific needs of female inmates and current debates on the imprisonment of women. / Sociology / D. Litt. et Phil. (Sociology)

This study explores and critically analyses the lived experiences of female inmates in six selected prisons in Cameroon. The study contributes to the available knowledge regarding prison conditions from the perspectives of female inmates– a subject which has been under researched globally and has received little attention from researchers in Cameroon. The Cameroon Penitentiary Regulation (CPR) professes to be gender neutral and, therefore, it ignores the special needs of female inmates. The central research question is: How do the national policies and laws on prison conditions in Cameroon relate to the lived and narrated experiences of female inmates? The study is informed by two major frameworks, namely, Foucault’s analytical framework from his seminal work Discipline and Punish (1977) and a feminist analytical framework, standpoint feminism, which fills the gap in Foucault’s thesis that is largely devoid of gender analysis. The study is qualitative, using in-depth interviews and observations. It involved a sample of 38 research participants, comprising 18 female inmates, 18 prison staff members and two NGO representatives. The findings reveal that both international and national ratified policies are merely “paperwork”, lacking effective implementation in the prisons selected for this study. There is a general lack of infrastructural facilities in prisons and this prevents classification as suggested by the CPR 1992 and ratified international instruments. In general, there was a lack of educational and other training facilities in all the prisons visited. The few educational facilities available were those supported by NGOs and FBOs, suggesting that, without their presence in prisons, prison conditions would have been even more appalling than the findings revealed. Torture and corporal punishment were meted out to female inmates, regardless of the regular visits by human rights organisations to prisons. There are no provisions made for conjugal visits in the prisons. Same-sex relationships exist in Cameroonian prisons, either because of sexual preference or as a substitute for heterosexual relationships. The reform of the dated CPR 1992 and the Cameroon Penal Code 1967 is essential. Such reform should take into consideration both the specific needs of female inmates and current debates on the imprisonment of women. / Sociology / D. Litt. et Phil. (Sociology)

The study was done to assess the information and care the men and women have on PCC and develop strategies that could improve provision of PCC that could advance maternal and newborn outcome after pregnancy in Malawi. Most for the interventions to improve pregnancy outcome are done too late in Malawi but there is an opportunity during preconception period to plan to improve the health of the couple so that the goal of a healthy mother and baby is attained. The objectives were to: explore and describe the knowledge men and women of childbearing age have on HTSP and PCC, identify variables that influence men and women to acquire appropriate knowledge on PCC and finally to develop strategies that could assist provision of PCC in developing countries like Malawi. Adverse issues that affect the couples could be addressed promptly before the occurrence of pregnancy. A quantitative non-experimental descriptive-correlation design method was used to determine the knowledge men and women of childbearing have on HTSP and PCC. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data from 300 men and women of childbearing age. The target population for the study was prospective parents that are couples that have an intention to conceive, women of childbearing age that could be accessible at family planning, gyneacological and under-five clinics between the ages of 18-35 years. A questionnaire was adapted from a study conducted in Texas. SPSS version 20 was used to analyse the data by generating frequencies and chi- square. Kruskal Wallis test was used to determine relationship between variables and knowledge on preconception care. The constructs examined were psychological preparation, reproductive health care and the physical care that are provided to ensure a healthy pregnancy outcome. With a 100% response rate the findings indicated a gap of information and care on PCC.Services on PCC were not available in the clinics which indicated a great need to empower health care providers on PCC that could reduce maternal and neonatal mortality rate. The findings were used to develop relevant preconception strategies that would assist health providers to give PCC that would improve maternal and newborn outcomes in Malawi. / D. Litt. et Phil. (Health Studies)

The study was conducted with the aim of assessing the Saudi Arabian cultural knowledge among the non-Muslim nurses. These nurses work in the obstetric units at the King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Jeddah and come from different cultural groups and are caring for the Saudi Arabian Muslim women. In order for care to be congruent, comprehensive and of a high quality, the patients' needs should be met at the best attainable level. Nurses in all health care settings are expected to demonstrate knowledge of the culture that they serve in order to eliminate barriers. Data analysis was facilitated with the use of the SPSS 11.5 computer program. The study findings may suggest the development of educational guidelines, which will direct the activities of an educational intervention. / Health Studies / M.A. (Health Studies))