De acordo com a Organização Mundial de Saúde (World Health Organization - WHO), aproximadamente 40 milhões de pessoas ao redor do mundo estão infectadas com HIV/AIDS. Atualmente, a epidemia tem sido controlada em grande parte do mundo ocidental, porém, projeções sugerem que, até o fim desta década, o número de incidência da doença poderá duplicar. Apesar das significantes melhoras na morbidade e mortalidade de pacientes infectados pelo HIV, o rápido surgimento de cepas resistentes aos agentes anti-HIV, além dos efeitos adversos e o alto custo de fármacos de última geração, torna-se necessário o continuo desenvolvimento de novas classes de agentes anti-HIV. A transcrição e multiplicação do RNA viral são dependentes das interações seqüência-específica entre duas proteínas reguladoras virais essenciais, Tat e Rev, com seus respectivos sítios no RNA, TAR e RRE. Durante a última década, os aminoglicosídeos foram introduzidos como ligantes universais do RNA, sendo capazes de se ligar ao TAR e ao RRE. A literatura apresenta diversos aminoglicosídeos que são capazes de se ligar ao TAR e inibir a interação Tat-TAR bem como, inibir competitivamente a ligação da proteína Rev ao RRE, como, por exemplo, a neomicina e tobramicina. Considerando a importância dos aminoglicosídeos e análogos nucleosídicos, conhecidamente eficazes na terapia antirretroviral, o trabalho foi direcionado para a síntese de conjugados de aminociclitol, 2- desoxi-estreptramina, e adenosina, bem como, dímeros de adenosina via estratégia de click chemistry por reação de cicloadição azido-alcino catalisada por Cu(I) (CuAAC). Para a síntese destes produtos, o precursor adenosina foi convertido no derivado 5\'-azido-5\'- desoxi-adenosina, o qual foi condensado com diversos diinos terminais comerciais, contendo diferentes grupos espaçantes, com a finalidade de explorar suas influências nas propriedades eletrônicas e estéricas nos conjugados de interesse frente à atividade anti-HIV. Os derivados alcinos presentes na posição C-5\' de adenosina, via grupo triazol, foram empregados para a síntese dos monômeros nucleosídeo-aminociclitóis, assim como, na síntese de dímeros nucleosíde0-aminociclitóis, via reação de cicloadição 1,3-dipolar, na presença de CuSO4, quantidade catalítica, e ascorbato de sódio, para geração in situ de Cu(I). Adicionalmente, alguns dos compostos, na concentração de 1mM, foram testados empregando o ensaio de ELISA para detecção da presença de proteína viral p24 em linhagem células H9 e avaliação de sua atividade antirretroviral. De acordo com o ensaio biológico, um dos compostos preparados apresentou, proporcionalmente ao crescimento da linhagem H9 (HIV) controle, atividade de inibição de formação da proteína viral p24 similar ao composto padrão zidovudina (AZT). Além disso, outros dois compostos também apresentaram um resultado relevante uma vez que suas atividades foram similares ao composto padrão lamivudina (3TC). Estes resultados sugerem que a presença de uma cadeia metilênica mais extensa, como cadeia lateral ou grupo espaçante, pode influenciar positivamente a atividade biológica por efeito hidrofóbico ou estérico. Por fim, os ensaios de viabilidade celular demonstraram que os compostos testados não foram citotóxicos nas condições testadas. / According to World Health Organization - WHO about 40 million of people are infected with HIV/AIDS. Currently, the epidemic has been controlled largely in the western world, since, projections suggest that, until this decade end, the disease incidence could increase. Despite significant improvements in morbidity and mortality of HIV-patients, quick emergence of resistant strains to anti-HIV agents, in addition to adverse effects and high cost of recent drugs, becomes necessary the ongoing development of new classes of HIV agents. Transcription and translation of the viral RNA are dependent of sequence-specific interactions among two essential viral regulatory proteins, Tat and Rev, and their corresponding TAR and RRE sites in HIV-1 RNA. Over the past decade, aminoglycosides were established as universal RNA linkers, being able to link to TAR and RRE. The literature reports several aminoglycosides that bind to TAR and inhibit Tat-TAR interaction, as well as, competitively inhibit the bind between Rev protein and RRE, such as: neomycin and tobramycin. Considering the importance of nucleosides analogs, effective in antiretroviral therapy, and aminoglycosides, the work was driven to the synthesis of aminocyclitol, 2- deoxy-streptamine, conjugated to the adenosine, as well as, conjugated dimers of adenosine by molecular duplication via click chemistry strategy involving copper-catalysed azide-alkyne cycloaddition reaction (CuAAC). For the synthesis of these products, the starting material adenosine was converted to 5\'-azide-5\'-deoxy-adenosine, which was conjugated with several commercials terminal dialkynes containing different intercalating groups in order to explore the influences of the steric and electronic properties of conjugates towards anti-HIV activity. Alkynes derivated at C-5\' position of adenosine, via triazole group, were used in the synthesis of nucleoside-linked aminocyclitols, as well as, nucleoside conjugated dimers by 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction under microwave-assisted conditions (MW), using the catalytic system CuSO4/sodium ascorbate for the in situ generation of Cu(I). Additionally, several compounds, at concentration of 1mM, were tested in vitro by ELISA for detection of p24 protein in H9 cells to antiretroviral evaluation. According with the biologic assay, one of the compounds showed inhibition of p24 protein production similar to zidovudine (AZT), when compared to H9 cells line growth control, Furthermore, two compounds also showed important activities similar to lamivudine (3TC). These results suggest that the presence of a longer methylenic chain, as side chain or intercalating groups, could influence positively in the biologic activity due to hydrophobic or steric effects. Ultimately, the cell viability assays showed that compounds were not cytotoxic in the tested conditions.

La contamination des surfaces par des bactéries et l’émergence de souches résistantes aux antimicrobiens sont des problèmes très préoccupants dans différents domaines tel que les domaines hospitalier et alimentaire. Cette contamination commence par l’adhésion de bactéries pathogènes sur une surface jusqu’à la formation de biofilms. Ces derniers contribuent à l’émergence de résistances de certaines souches bactériennes aux traitements conventionnels. Pour répondre à ces problèmes de contamination des surfaces, ces travaux de thèse portent sur le développement de nouveaux matériaux antibactériens à base de fibres de pâte à papier. Nous nous sommes intéressés, dans une première partie, à l’élaboration d’un papier antibactérien par le greffage, via un lien triazine, de deux composés d’huiles essentielles, le thymol et le carvacrol, connus pour leurs activités antibactériennes. L’évaluation microbiologique des matériaux élaborés, sur les deux souches bactériennes testées, E.coli et S.aureus, a montré un effet bactériostatique. Ces matériaux bloquent donc la croissance bactérienne empêchant ainsi la formation des biofilms. Une synergie entre le thymol et le carvacrol lorsqu’ils sont greffés sur les fibres de pâte à papier a également été montré. Dans une deuxième partie, notre étude s’est focalisée sur l’élaboration d’un papier antibactérien qui n’acquière son activité qu’après greffage et formation du motif actif « aryl-1,2,3-triazole ». Le greffage est réalisé par une réaction de « Click Chemistry », la cycloaddition de Huisguen catalysée par le cuivre I. Les tests antibactériens révèlent l’importance du substituant de l’aryle, l’influence du temps de contact et la pertinence d’utiliser des mélanges de matériaux. L’activité antibactérienne observée sur les fibres de la pâte thermomécanique est meilleure dans les deux parties. Les différents résultats obtenus sont décrits dans ce manuscrit. / The contamination of surfaces by bacteria and the emergence of antimicrobial resistant strains are very worrying problems in different areas such as hospital and food. This contamination begins with the adhesion of pathogenic bacteria on a surface until the formation of biofilms. These biofilms contribute to the emergence of resistances of certain bacterial strains to conventional treatments. To answer these problems of surface contamination, this thesis work focuses on the development of new antibacterial materials based on pulp fibers. In the first part, we focused on the development of an antibacterial paper by grafting, via triazine link, two essential oil compounds, thymol and carvacrol, known for their antibacterial activities. The microbiological evaluation of the developed materials against the two bacterial strains tested, E. coli and S. aureus, showed a bacteriostatic effect. These materials block the bacterial growth thus preventing the biofilms formation. Synergy between thymol and carvacrol grafted onto paper has also been shown. In a second part, our study focused on the development of an antibacterial paper that acquires its activity only after the grafting and formation of "aryl-1,2,3-triazole", the active motif. The grafting is carried out by a reaction of "Click Chemistry", the copper (I)-catalyzed Azide Alkyne Cycloaddition. The antibacterial tests reveal the importance of the aryl substituent, the influence of the contact time and the relevance of using mixtures of materials. The antibacterial activity observed on the thermomechanical pulp fibers is better in both parts. The different results obtained are described in this manuscript.

A la suite des nombreux travaux sur l’inhibition de la glycogène phosphorylase (GP) menés au laboratoire et au travers de diverses collaborations, cette thèse décrit en cinq chapitres suivis d’une partie expérimentale détaillée, les dernières avancées en termes de synthèse et d’évaluation biologique des inhibiteurs du site catalytique de la GP. La chapitre I de ce manuscrit est consacrée à la présentation des diabètes et plus particulièrement du diabète de type II dont le traitement, motivation première de ce projet, repose sur la connaissance des mécanismes complexes régulant la glycémie. Les différents inhibiteurs synthétisés sont classés par famille selon leur structure qui associe un aglycone hétérocyclique, susceptible d’affinité pour le canal β proche du site actif de l’enzyme, avec un motif glycopyranosidique, ou glycopyranosylidène dans le cas des motifs spiro. Le chapitre II est consacré aux inhibiteurs spiro-bicycliques tels que les glucopyranosylidène-spiro-1,4,2-oxathiazoles et les glucopyranosylidène-spiro-isoxazolines. Le chapitre III décrit la synthèse de C- et N-glycosyles hétérocycles, principalement des glycopyranosyl-1,2,3-triazoles. Enfin le chapitre IV décrit la fonctionnalisation de 5-halogéno-1,2,3-triazoles 4-substitués par couplages pallado-catalysés qui ont constitué un développement imprévu mais original des travaux. Pour terminer, le chapitre V décrit l’évaluation des molécules préparées en tant qu’inhibiteurs de la glycogène phosphorylase. Les expériences et résultats d’enzymologie, de cristallographie ainsi que les tests cellulaires in vitro et in vivo sur le rat sont présentés / Following many studies lead on the inhibition of glycogen phosphorylase (GP) in our laboratory an trough several collaborations, this thesis describes in five chapters and a detailed experimental section, the most recent advances in the areas of synthesis and biological evaluation of GP’s catalytic site inhibitors. Chapter I is dedicated to the description of diabetes and especially type 2 diabetes of which treatment, the main goal of this project, requires knowledge of the complex mechanisms that regulates glycemia. Synthesized inhibitors are broken down into families according to their structure which associates an heterocyclic aglycon, prone to binding in the β pocket lining the active site, with a glycopyranoside or glycopyranosylidene moiety in the case of spiro compounds. Chapter II focuses on spiro-bicyclic inhibitors such as glucopyranosilidene-spiro-1,4,2-oxathiazoles and glucopranosylidene-spiro-isoxazolines. Chapter III describes the synthesis of C- and N-glycosyl-heterocycles, mainly glycopyranosyl-1,2,3-triazoles. Finally, chapter IV studies the palladium-mediated cross coupling fonctionalization of 4-substituted-5-halogenated-1,2,3-triazoles that represents an unexpected but interesting development of the project. To conclude, chapter V gathers the evaluation of synthesized molecules as GP inhibitors. Enzymology and crystallography as well as in vitro and in vivo experiments are presented

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Neste trabalho foi realizada a modificação química do poli(cloreto de vinila) (PVC) pela sua reação com azida de sódio, onde alguns dos seus átomos de cloro foram substituídos por azidas. Em seguida o grupo incorporado foi transformado em triazóis por uma reação de cicloadição 1,3 entre o polímero modificado e propiolato de etila, sendo a reação catalisada por iodeto de cobre. Essas reações foram conduzidas sob aquecimento convencional e empregando irradiação de micro-ondas. Inicialmente, a reação incorporou 20% de triazol no PVC, sendo avaliadas as condições reacionais ideais. Essas condições foram usadas para a formação de novos copolímeros com diferentes teores de triazóis incorporados. Os produtos obtidos foram usados para o suporte de paládio que é utilizado como catalisador na reação de Suzuki-Miyaura. Todos os copolímeros foram caracterizados por espectroscopia na região do infravermelho com transformada de Fourier (FTIR) / In this work was performed the chemical modification of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) by its reaction with sodium azide, in which some of their chlorine atoms has been replaced with azides. Then the azide group was converted to 1,2,3-triazoles by a 1,3-cycloaddition reaction between the modified polymer and ethyl propiolate, the reaction was catalyzed by copper iodide. These reactions were conducted using conventional heating and microwave irradiation. Initially, the reaction incorporated triazole in 20% of PVC, the optimal reaction conditions was evaluated. These conditions were used for the formation of new copolymers with different amounts of incorporated triazoles. The products obtained were used as a support for palladium, which is used as a catalyst in Suzuki-Miyaura reaction. All copolymers were characterized by infrared spectroscopy, Fourier transform spectroscopy (FTIR)

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Neste trabalho foi realizada a modificação química do poli(cloreto de vinila) (PVC) pela sua reação com azida de sódio, onde alguns dos seus átomos de cloro foram substituídos por azidas. Em seguida o grupo incorporado foi transformado em triazóis por uma reação de cicloadição 1,3 entre o polímero modificado e propiolato de etila, sendo a reação catalisada por iodeto de cobre. Essas reações foram conduzidas sob aquecimento convencional e empregando irradiação de micro-ondas. Inicialmente, a reação incorporou 20% de triazol no PVC, sendo avaliadas as condições reacionais ideais. Essas condições foram usadas para a formação de novos copolímeros com diferentes teores de triazóis incorporados. Os produtos obtidos foram usados para o suporte de paládio que é utilizado como catalisador na reação de Suzuki-Miyaura. Todos os copolímeros foram caracterizados por espectroscopia na região do infravermelho com transformada de Fourier (FTIR) / In this work was performed the chemical modification of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) by its reaction with sodium azide, in which some of their chlorine atoms has been replaced with azides. Then the azide group was converted to 1,2,3-triazoles by a 1,3-cycloaddition reaction between the modified polymer and ethyl propiolate, the reaction was catalyzed by copper iodide. These reactions were conducted using conventional heating and microwave irradiation. Initially, the reaction incorporated triazole in 20% of PVC, the optimal reaction conditions was evaluated. These conditions were used for the formation of new copolymers with different amounts of incorporated triazoles. The products obtained were used as a support for palladium, which is used as a catalyst in Suzuki-Miyaura reaction. All copolymers were characterized by infrared spectroscopy, Fourier transform spectroscopy (FTIR)

De acordo com a Organização Mundial de Saúde (World Health Organization - WHO), aproximadamente 40 milhões de pessoas ao redor do mundo estão infectadas com HIV/AIDS. Atualmente, a epidemia tem sido controlada em grande parte do mundo ocidental, porém, projeções sugerem que, até o fim desta década, o número de incidência da doença poderá duplicar. Apesar das significantes melhoras na morbidade e mortalidade de pacientes infectados pelo HIV, o rápido surgimento de cepas resistentes aos agentes anti-HIV, além dos efeitos adversos e o alto custo de fármacos de última geração, torna-se necessário o continuo desenvolvimento de novas classes de agentes anti-HIV. A transcrição e multiplicação do RNA viral são dependentes das interações seqüência-específica entre duas proteínas reguladoras virais essenciais, Tat e Rev, com seus respectivos sítios no RNA, TAR e RRE. Durante a última década, os aminoglicosídeos foram introduzidos como ligantes universais do RNA, sendo capazes de se ligar ao TAR e ao RRE. A literatura apresenta diversos aminoglicosídeos que são capazes de se ligar ao TAR e inibir a interação Tat-TAR bem como, inibir competitivamente a ligação da proteína Rev ao RRE, como, por exemplo, a neomicina e tobramicina. Considerando a importância dos aminoglicosídeos e análogos nucleosídicos, conhecidamente eficazes na terapia antirretroviral, o trabalho foi direcionado para a síntese de conjugados de aminociclitol, 2- desoxi-estreptramina, e adenosina, bem como, dímeros de adenosina via estratégia de click chemistry por reação de cicloadição azido-alcino catalisada por Cu(I) (CuAAC). Para a síntese destes produtos, o precursor adenosina foi convertido no derivado 5\'-azido-5\'- desoxi-adenosina, o qual foi condensado com diversos diinos terminais comerciais, contendo diferentes grupos espaçantes, com a finalidade de explorar suas influências nas propriedades eletrônicas e estéricas nos conjugados de interesse frente à atividade anti-HIV. Os derivados alcinos presentes na posição C-5\' de adenosina, via grupo triazol, foram empregados para a síntese dos monômeros nucleosídeo-aminociclitóis, assim como, na síntese de dímeros nucleosíde0-aminociclitóis, via reação de cicloadição 1,3-dipolar, na presença de CuSO4, quantidade catalítica, e ascorbato de sódio, para geração in situ de Cu(I). Adicionalmente, alguns dos compostos, na concentração de 1mM, foram testados empregando o ensaio de ELISA para detecção da presença de proteína viral p24 em linhagem células H9 e avaliação de sua atividade antirretroviral. De acordo com o ensaio biológico, um dos compostos preparados apresentou, proporcionalmente ao crescimento da linhagem H9 (HIV) controle, atividade de inibição de formação da proteína viral p24 similar ao composto padrão zidovudina (AZT). Além disso, outros dois compostos também apresentaram um resultado relevante uma vez que suas atividades foram similares ao composto padrão lamivudina (3TC). Estes resultados sugerem que a presença de uma cadeia metilênica mais extensa, como cadeia lateral ou grupo espaçante, pode influenciar positivamente a atividade biológica por efeito hidrofóbico ou estérico. Por fim, os ensaios de viabilidade celular demonstraram que os compostos testados não foram citotóxicos nas condições testadas. / According to World Health Organization - WHO about 40 million of people are infected with HIV/AIDS. Currently, the epidemic has been controlled largely in the western world, since, projections suggest that, until this decade end, the disease incidence could increase. Despite significant improvements in morbidity and mortality of HIV-patients, quick emergence of resistant strains to anti-HIV agents, in addition to adverse effects and high cost of recent drugs, becomes necessary the ongoing development of new classes of HIV agents. Transcription and translation of the viral RNA are dependent of sequence-specific interactions among two essential viral regulatory proteins, Tat and Rev, and their corresponding TAR and RRE sites in HIV-1 RNA. Over the past decade, aminoglycosides were established as universal RNA linkers, being able to link to TAR and RRE. The literature reports several aminoglycosides that bind to TAR and inhibit Tat-TAR interaction, as well as, competitively inhibit the bind between Rev protein and RRE, such as: neomycin and tobramycin. Considering the importance of nucleosides analogs, effective in antiretroviral therapy, and aminoglycosides, the work was driven to the synthesis of aminocyclitol, 2- deoxy-streptamine, conjugated to the adenosine, as well as, conjugated dimers of adenosine by molecular duplication via click chemistry strategy involving copper-catalysed azide-alkyne cycloaddition reaction (CuAAC). For the synthesis of these products, the starting material adenosine was converted to 5\'-azide-5\'-deoxy-adenosine, which was conjugated with several commercials terminal dialkynes containing different intercalating groups in order to explore the influences of the steric and electronic properties of conjugates towards anti-HIV activity. Alkynes derivated at C-5\' position of adenosine, via triazole group, were used in the synthesis of nucleoside-linked aminocyclitols, as well as, nucleoside conjugated dimers by 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction under microwave-assisted conditions (MW), using the catalytic system CuSO4/sodium ascorbate for the in situ generation of Cu(I). Additionally, several compounds, at concentration of 1mM, were tested in vitro by ELISA for detection of p24 protein in H9 cells to antiretroviral evaluation. According with the biologic assay, one of the compounds showed inhibition of p24 protein production similar to zidovudine (AZT), when compared to H9 cells line growth control, Furthermore, two compounds also showed important activities similar to lamivudine (3TC). These results suggest that the presence of a longer methylenic chain, as side chain or intercalating groups, could influence positively in the biologic activity due to hydrophobic or steric effects. Ultimately, the cell viability assays showed that compounds were not cytotoxic in the tested conditions.

L’utilisation de semi-conducteurs organiques dans les dispositifs électroniques offre d’intéressantes perspectives. En effet, ils permettent d’alléger le poids de ces dispositifs en plus de diminuer grandement le coût de leur fabrication. Cependant, une des principales problématiques associées à ces semi-conducteurs organiques est leur procédé de fabrication qui requiert des solvants organiques toxiques et de multiples étapes de synthèse. Dans ce travail, un nouveau procédé de synthèse respectueux de l’environnement a été mis au point. Une seule étape était nécessaire à la préparation des semi-conducteurs, en utilisant la réaction de polycondensation entre une diamine et un dialdéhyde. Cette réaction a été réalisée à température ambiante, dans un solvant vert, l’éthanol, et sans utilisation de catalyseurs, minimisant ainsi la consommation énergétique et utilisant un milieu réactionnel de source renouvelable et peu toxique. Après leur dopage, ces polymères ont présentés des propriétés de conduction comparables à celles des principaux semi-conducteurs organiques. La deuxième partie de cette thèse a été consacrée à l’étude de l’utilisation du papier comme support pour les dispositifs d’électronique organique; s’affranchissant ainsi de l’utilisation de substrats généralement non biodégradables et/ou de sources non renouvelables (plastique ou verre). Deux stratégies ont été utilisées à cette fin. La première consistait en un dépôt direct des polymères semi-conducteurs à la surface de filaments de cellulose. La deuxième est basée sur la création d’un lien covalent entre les semi-conducteurs et la pâte Kraft, en utilisant la réaction de cycloaddition 1,3-dipolaire de Huisgen catalysée par le cuivre (CuAAc). / The use of organic semiconductors in electronic devices offers interesting prospects. Indeed, they make it possible to lighten the weight of these devices in addition to greatly reducing the cost of their manufacture. However, one of the main problems associated with these organic semiconductors is their manufacturing process, which requires toxic organic solvents and multiple synthesis steps. In this work, a new environmentally friendly synthesis process has been developed. A single step was necessary for the preparation of the semiconductors, using the polycondensation reaction between a diamine and a dialdehyde.This reaction was carried out at room temperature in ethanol, a green solvent and without the use of catalysts, thus minimizing energy consumption and using a reaction medium from a renewable and low-toxicity source. After their doping, these polymers exhibited conduction properties comparable to those observed for conventional organic semiconductors.The second part of this thesis was devoted to the study of the use of paper as a support for organic electronics devices; hus avoiding the use of generally non-biodegradable and/or non-renewable substrates (plastic or glass). Two strategies have been used to this end. The first consisted of a direct deposit of the semiconducting polymers to the surface of cellulose filaments.The second is based on the creation of a covalent bond between the semiconductors and the Kraft pulp, using the copper-catalyzed Huisgen 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction (CuAAc).

Thesis (PhD (Chemistry and Polymer Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Different click chemistry methods have been used together with Reversible Addition- Fragmentation chain Transfer (RAFT) mediated polymerization to synthesize macromolecular architectures. A new leaving group for RAFT was introduced. This triazole leaving group allows for easy conjugation of the RAFT agent to various substrates via the copperI catalyzed Huisgen 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction. Subsequently monomer can be polymerized onto the substrate using the RAFT agent. This connects the polymer to the substrate via a hydrolytically stable 1,2,3-triazole. The Mitsunobu reaction was used to chain-end functionalize polymers. The Mitsunobu reaction allows for the substitution of primary and secondary alcohols with a nucleophile. The modification of polymer chain-ends was done in two ways. Firstly, thiol-functional chain-ends were used as the nucleophile in the Mitsunobu reaction using propargyl alcohol as the alcohol. This yielded alkyne-functional polymers. Thiol chain-end functional polymers were obtained by the aminolysis of polymers synthesized via RAFT. Secondly, alcohol-functional polymers were modified. In the case of poly(vinylpyrrolidone), the RAFT group was hydrolyzed and alcohols were obtained. Hydroxyl functional PEG was obtained commercially. The hydroxyl functionality was reacted in the Mitsunobu reaction using hydrazoic acid (HN3) as the nucleophile. Azide chain end functional polymers were obtained. These alkyne and azide chain end functional polymers were subsequently used in the copperI catalyzed Huisgen 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction. Ultra Fast Hetero Diels-Alder click chemistry (UFHDA) was used to synthesizes norbornenelike structures (substituted 2-thiabicyclo[2.2.1]hept-5-ene moieties). Norbornene-like structures can be polymerized via Ring Opening Metathesis Polymerization (ROMP). Monomers were synthesized using phenethyl(diethoxyphosphoryl)dithioformate and cyclopentadiene. Macromonomers were obtained from the UFHDA of Polystyrene (PSTY) synthesized via RAFT, using phenethyl(diethoxyphosphoryl) dithioformate as the RAFT agent, and cyclopentadiene or cyclopentadienyl-terminated PEG as the dienes. The obtained (macro) monomers were homo- and copolymerized using Ring Opening Metathesis Polymerization (ROMP). For the ROMP, four different Grubbs type catalysts were tested.The ring-strain promoted Huisgen 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction uses cyclooctynes as the alkyne. The ring-strain in this molecule allows for a fast reaction at room temperature. This reaction is potentially very interesting for biological applications because it doesn’t require the toxic copper catalyst. In this work three routes towards cyclooctynes are investigated. PEG was chain end functionalized with the obtained cyclooctyne derivatives. Overall, click chemistry methodologies were applied to synthesize different macromolecular architectures. Results include a new type of RAFT agent that allows for easy conjugation to substrates, reaction methods for chain end modification of polymers, and the synthesis of new monomers and polymers. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Verskillende kliek chemie metodes, tesame met Omkeerbare Addisie Fragmentasie ketting Oordrag beheerde polimerisasie (OAFO), is gebruik vir die sintese van makromolekulêre argitekture. ʼn Nuwe verlatende groep vir OAFO was bekend gestel. Die triazool verlatende groep bied die moontlikheid vir gemaklike koppeling van die OAFO agente met ‘n verskeidenheid van substrate via die koperI gekataliseerde Huisgen 1,3-dipolêre siklo-addisie reaksie. Gevolglik kan monomere gepolimeriseer word op die substraat deur middel van die OAFO agent. Dit laat toe vir die koppeling van die polimeer op die substraat via a hidrolitiese stabiele 1,2,3-triazool. Die Mitsunobu reaksie was gebruik vir die funksionaliseering van die end groepe van die polimeer ketting. Die Mitsunobu reaksie laat toe vir die substitusie van primêre en sekondêre alkohole met ‘n nukleofiel. Die verandering van die polimeer ketting end groepe was uitgevoer op twee verskillende maniere. Eerstens is ketting end groepe met ‘n tiol funktionaliteit gebruik as a nukleofiel in die Mitsunobu reaksie deur gebruik te maak van propargiel alkohol as die alkohol. Dit het alkyn funktionele polimere opgelewer. Tiol ketting end funktionele polimere was verkry deur middel van aminolise van die polimere gesintetiseer via OAFA. Tweedens is alkohol funktionele polimere gemodifiseer. In die geval van poli(N-vinielpirolidoon) is die OAFA grope gehidroliseer en gevolglik is alkohole verkry op hierdie manier. Kommersiële funksionele PEG was gebruik. Die hidroksie funksionele groep was gereageer in die Mitsunobu reaksie deur gebruik te maak van waterstof asied (HN3) as die nukleofiel. Dit het asied funksionele ketting eindes opgelewer. Die alkyne en asied ketting end funksionele polimere was gevolglik gebruik in die koperI gekataliseerde Huisgen 1,3- dipolêre siklo-addisie reaksie. Ultra Vinnige Hetero Diels-Alder kliek chemie (UVHDA) was gebruik vir die sintese van norborneen agtige strukture (gesubstitueerde 2-tiabisiklo[2.2.1]hept-5-een groepe). Monomere was gesintetiseer deur gebruik te maak van fenieletiel(di-etoksifosforiel)di-tioformaat en siklopentadiëen of siklopentadiëen-getermineerde PEG. Die sintese van makromonomere is verkry via UVHDA deur gebruik te maak van polistireen, gesintetiseer deur middel van OAFO (waar fenieletiel(dietoksifosforiel) di-tioformaat gebruik is as OAFO agent), en siklopentadiëen of siklopentadiëengetermineerde PEG. Die makromonomere wat verkry is, is verder gebruik vir homo- en kopolimerisasie deur middel van Ring Opening Metatesis Polimerisasie, ROMP. Vir die ROMP is vier verskillende Grubbs tipe kataliste gebruik. Die ring-spanning bevorderde die Huisgen 1,3,-dipolêre siklo-addissie reaksie waar siklooketyne gebruik is as die alkyne. Die ring-spanning in die molekule laat toe vir vinninge reaksies by kamer temperatuur. Die reaksie het die potensiaal vir interessante biologiese toepassings aangesien dit nie ’n kopper katalis vereis nie wat toksies van aard is. In die studie word drie roetes ten einde to siko-oktyn ondersoek. PEG was geketting end gefunksionaliseerd met die gevolgde siko-oktyne afgeleides. Verskillende kliek chemie metodologiëe was toegepas vir die sintese van verskillende makromolekulêre argitekture. Resultate sluit in een nuwe tipe OAFO agent wat maklike konjugasie met substrate bewerkstellig, ketting einde modifikasie van polimere, nuwe monomere en polimere wat gesintetiseer is.

Lignocellulosic biomass is believed to serve a prominent role in tomorrow’s sustainable energy and material development. Among the polysaccharide fractions of lignocellulosic biomass, the potential of hemicelluloses as a valuable material resource is increasingly recognized. Thanks to their hydrophilic structure, hemicelluloses are suitable substrates for hydrogel design. The work summarized in this thesis aims to develop feasible strategies for the conversion of O-acetyl galactoglucomannan (AcGGM), an ample hemicellulose in softwood, into hydrogels. Within this framework, four synthetic pathways targeting the formation of crosslinked hydrogel networks from pure or unrefined AcGGM fractions were developed.   Aqueous AcGGM-rich and lignin-containing side-stream process liquors of forest industry, known as softwood hydrolysates (SWHs) were formulated into highly swellable hydrogels by: i) allyl-functionalization of AcGGM chains of crude SWH to obtain a viable precursor for hydrogel synthesis via free-radical crosslinking, ii) directly incorporating unmodified SWH fractions into semi-interpenetrating polymer networks (semi-IPNs). SWH hydrogels and semi-IPNs were characterized with appreciable maximum swelling ratios of Qeq = 170 and Qeq = 225, respectively.   Rapid crosslinking of AcGGM through thiol-click chemistry was addressed by first imparting thiol functionality onto pure AcGGM chains in a one-pot procedure. The thiolated AcGGM proved to be a suitable substrate for the synthesis of hemicellulose hydrogels via thiol-ene and thiol Michael addition reactions. Finally, sequential full IPNs were developed by subjecting single network hydrogels of pure AcGGM to a second network formation. IPNs obtained through either free radical crosslinking or thiol-ene crosslinking exhibited higher shear storage moduli than their single network counterparts. / <p>QC 20161102</p>

L’objectif de la thèse était le développement de catalyseurs pour la cycloaddition entre alcynes et azotures catalysée par le cuivre(I) (CuAAC), une des réactions les plus importantes de la chimie moderne. Dans un premier temps, nous avons montré que le complexe de cuivre(II) [Cu(C186-tren)]Br2 pouvait être utilisé comme catalyseur pour cette réaction, et ceci sans ajout d’un réducteur sacrificiel externe de type ascorbate de sodium. Des études spectroscopiques (RPE, UV-visible) suggèrent que l’alcyne sert de « réducteur interne ». Dans un deuxième temps, l’utilisation d’un ligand tren portant trois groupements tert-butylbenzène (tBuBz3tren) a permis d’obtenir des complexes supramoléculaires de cuivre(II) solubles dans l’eau par formation de complexes d’inclusion avec des beta-cyclodextrines. Ces complexes se sont avérés être de bons catalyseurs pour la CuAAC, particulièrement en utilisant l’ascorbate de sodium comme réducteur. Nous avons ensuite préparé le complexe de cuivre(II), [Cu(tBuBz3tren)kétoprofénate]kétoprofénate, dont le contre-ion est l’anion kétoprofénate qui possède une fonction benzophénone comme photosensibilisateur. Sous irradiation à 365 nm, ce complexe est réduit très efficacement en cuivre(I) par transfert d’électron photo-induit. Nos études ont montré que le précatalyseur de cuivre(II) peut donc être activé très efficacement par la lumière pour générer une espèce cuivre(I) très réactive pour la cycloaddition de Huisgen. Le contrôle de l’activité catalytique du complexe a été testé dans le méthanol ou le toluène pour la réaction entre différents azotures et alcynes. Les triazoles correspondants ont été isolés avec d’excellents rendements par simple filtration. De plus, une fois la réaction initiée photochimiquement, il est possible de la stopper instantanément en introduisant de l’air dans le milieu réactionnel. Il s’agit du premier exemple de catalyseur photoactivable pour la chimie click. / This thesis focuses on the development of catalysts for the copper-catalyzed reaction between alkynes and azides (CuAAC), one of the most important reactions of modern chemistry. As a first step, we have shown that the copper(II) complex [Cu(C186-tren)]Br2 could be used as catalyst for this reaction, and this without adding an external sacrificial reductant such as sodium ascorbate. Spectroscopic studies (EPR, UV-visible) suggest that the alkyne serves as the "internal reductant" In a second step, the use of a tren ligand (tBuBz3tren) bearing three tert-butylbenzene groups allowed to obtain supramolecular copper(II) complexes that were soluble in water by formation of inclusion complexes with beta-cyclodextrins. These complexes proved to be good catalysts for CuAAC, particularly if using sodium ascorbate as the reductant. We then prepared the copper(II) complex, [Cu(tBuBz3tren)ketoprofenate]ketoprofenate, whose counter-ion is the ketoprofenate anion which contains a benzophenone function as a photosensitizer. Under irradiation at 365 nm, the complex is very effectively reduced to copper(I) by photoinduced electron transfer (PET). Our studies have shown that the copper(II) precatalyst can be very efficiently activated by light to generate a highly active copper(I) catalyst for the CuAAC. The control over the catalytic activity of the complex was tested in methanol or toluene for the reaction between various azides and alkynes. The corresponding triazoles were isolated with excellent yields by simple filtration. In addition, once the reaction is initiated photochemically, it is possible to instantly stopped it by introducing air into the reaction medium. Overall, this is the first example of a photoactivatable catalyst for click chemistry.