There is significant historical research on coal, education, religion, churches, and cultural values of the Tazewell County. However, there is no research weaving all of these elements together to tell a story of the county and its political development. This research project is a qualitative study in which I wish to reveal the story of the culture, specifically the political culture, of Tazewell County. I would like to examine objectively whether or not the mining industry has had an effect on the cultural aspects of the county. I want to ask: Is there evidence that the coal industry has shaped the political culture of Tazewell County and, if so, through what mechanisms did it exert this influence? Research will include the examination of mechanisms by which a political culture is created in single-dominant industry communities, such as Tazewell County Virginia. Research will include elements of political socialization such as peer groups, coal camps, church groups, family and community. The research will specifically focus on religion and education and how they have or have not defined the political culture of the area. / Master of Arts

Mining induced seismicity can lead to bumps which cause problems at many mines within the United States and around the world. This seismicity, often referred to as bumps or bursts, can result in injuries, fatalities, and expensive capital damage and production interruptions. There are many factors that contribute to mining induced seismicity but there is still no concrete method to forecast future seismic activity around a mine. One of the main precursors to large seismic events is an increase in situ stress. One way to find areas within geological strata that are highly stressed is to measure p-wave propagation velocities. High p-wave propagation velocities are associated with high in-situ stress levels. By using tomography programs a three-dimensional velocity model can be constructed. When seismic activity is present the event arrival times at each geophone, the locations of each geophone, and the three dimensional velocity model are used in conjunction with one another to locate the seismic events. This research compares the locations of seismic events from a deep coal mine longwall panel in the western United States with the associated p-wave propagation velocities from the previous 24 hours. The aim of this comparison is to provide a link between high velocities and seismic activity that could potentially be used to forecast future seismic activity. The comparison is completed both qualitatively through the use of a visual analysis, and quantitatively using various numerical and correlation comparisons on the seismic and velocity data. The qualitative comparison is completed using the event locations from the tomography program SIMULPS. The quantitative comparison is completed twice using two different tomography programs, SIMULPS and TomoDD, which use different methods for locating the seismic events. Before these comparisons were completed the stresses around the longwall panel were first modeled using the boundary element modeling program LAMODEL to study the effects of three backfilled cross panel entries which were located ahead of the mining face. The modeling showed similar vertical stress distributions as a panel without cross panel entries but higher stress magnitudes. The qualitative analysis involved comparing tomograms created with SIMULPS with seismicity plots from the following day. One noticeable feature of these tomograms is the presence of a stressed area directly ahead of the face. This stressed area represents the forward abutment. The results of this qualitative analysis illustrate a correlation between high p-wave velocities and seismic activity 24 hours later for several of the days studied. The other days showed little to no correlation. Additionally, not all high p-wave velocity regions resulted in seismic activity. Due to these inconsistencies visually analyzing velocity plots obtained from the program SIMULPS is not a reliable way to forecast the locations of seismic activity 24 hours later. The result of the quantitative comparisons completed with the programs SIMULPS and TomoDD further highlighted inconsistencies in the correlation between high p-wave velocities and associated seismic activity 24 hours later. TomoDD provided better correlation values than SIMULPS and generally showed that as the level of seismicity increased the p-wave propagation velocities 24 hours prior also increased. Although TomoDD provided good correlations for some of the data pairs studied, the overall inconsistencies prompt the need for further study in this area using TomoDD to find the optimal forecasting time period. / Master of Science

It is predicted that coal mining in Southwest Virginia, and the economic stability that it brings to the area, will continue to decline over the next decade unless an environmentally sound, and economically viable means can be found to extract seams of high quality coal in the thickness range of 14 to 28 inches. Research into autonomous machine guidance, coupled with developments of thin-seam mining equipment, offer new opportunities for devising mining layouts suitable for extracting these thin seams in a cost effective manner. These layouts must involve well-planned transportation and ventilation routes that will allow safe conditions for personnel. This implies that the mining face, where coal is extracted, will be completely automated, ensuring the safety of the workers. This thesis presents a brief overview of current technologies utilized for underground coal mining in the United States. This is followed by a review of developments in highwall mining that are potentially applicable in underground mining of thin seams. Some past attempts at thin seam mining are discussed, and evaluated for their short comings. An overview of the more recent advances in the guidance systems for use in autonomous mining machines is also presented. The new advances that several manufacturers are developing to address the integration of mining and continuous haulage systems are also investigated. That background is employed in devising a conceptual mining system for the underground mining of coal seams in the 14 to 28 inch range of thickness. This thesis proves that adapting new technologies and concepts from existing ones can lead to meaningful advances in the field of natural resources recovery. This system utilizes a newly designed panel layout that takes into account haulage, supplying, ventilation, equipment, and machine guidance. This system is proposed to show that new ways can be developed to take advantage of the reserves in the 14 to 28 inch range of thickness. This shows that new technology and design innovation can turn currently uneconomic resources, into economic reserves. This kind of innovation is what is needed to keep this region of Southwest Virginia economically viable. This system is a huge step in the direction that thin-seam research needs to take. Most of the equipment suggested for this proposed system is already available. / Master of Science

Hollow fills are composed of excess spoil and debris produced from surface coal mining that is not returned to the original mined site. Hollow fills are often constructed in the head of hollows nearby or adjacent to the mined land area, which may be the origins of headwater streams or drain into low order systems. Eleven hollow fills were utilized in evaluating the influence fill drainages had on low order streams in Virginia and West Virginia. The study was conducted in six watersheds including; Five Mile Creek in Mingo County, West Virginia, Trace Fork in Mingo County, West Virginia, Lavender Fork in Boone County, West Virginia, Middle Creek in Tazewell County, Virginia, South Fork of the Pound River in Wise County, Virginia, and Powell River in Wise County, Virginia. Bioassessment procedures used in the evaluation of hollow fill drainages included water/sediment chemistry, acute water column toxicity testing using <i>Ceriodaphnia dubia</i>, chronic sediment toxicity testing using <i>Daphnia magna</i>, benthic macroinvertebrate surveys, and <i>in situ</i> Asian clam (<i>Corbicula fluminea</i>) toxicity testing. Common significant differences in water quality between reference and fill influenced sites, among all watersheds, were elevated conductivity and water column metal concentrations, particularly aluminum and copper. Water column and sediment toxicity testing reported limited significant mortality or reproductive impairment associated with hollow fill drainages. The West Virginia watersheds used in the study consisted of headwater streams originating directly from the settling ponds, placed at the base of the hollow fills, receiving drainages from the fills. Benthic macroinvertebrate analysis reported no significant alteration in total taxa or EPT richness downstream of the ponds. Yet, collector filterer populations, including benthic macroinvertebrates and <i>in situ</i> Asian clams, were enhanced directly downstream of the ponds due to organic enrichment originating from the ponds. A decrease in collector filterer populations and lowered clam growth suggested the organic enrichment dissipated downstream from the ponds. Chlorophyll <i>a</i> analysis of the phytoplankton community was not significantly related to the enhance collector filterer populations in the streams, however the high concentrations in the settling ponds suggest abundant algal communities. The hollow fills evaluated in Virginia drained into receiving systems, whose headwater origins were not directly related to hollow fill drainages. Low taxa richness was associated with the hollow fill and settling pond drainages, however receiving system sites were minimally influenced. Yet, as reported in the West Virginia watersheds, the settling ponds input organic enrichment that enhanced collector filterer populations, including benthic macroinvertebrates and <i>in situ</i> test clams. An analysis of the hollow fills' age, or maturity, reported no significant difference between young and old fills. In general, a common feature of among the various aged fill drainages was elevated conductivity, compared to reference sites of the watersheds. / Master of Science

Recent interest in producing superclean coal has lead to the development of coal cleaning techniques which require the grinding of coal to sizes below 10 microns. Coal in this size range has inherent material handling problems, most of which can be eliminated by the utilization of this ultrafine coal in a slurry form. Ultrafine coal-water slurries, prepared from an Eastern bituminous coal, are investigated to determine the effect of size distribution on slurry rheology. The effect of reagent addition on slurry rheology is normalized by conducting experiments at optimum additions determined to maximize particle dispersion. As a result of this investigation, it has been found that the maximum solids loading for ultrafine coal slurries ranges from 55 to 60 percent by weight as compared to 70 to 75 percent solids reported for coarser slurries. It was further shown that as particle size decreases there is an increase in slurry viscosity and a corresponding decrease in maximum solids loading. Continued analysis in view of a suspension viscosity model (Lee, 1970) yields unsatisfactory predictions as compared to the experimental results. Modification of this model by incorporating a volume correction factor improves the correlation between model predictions and experimental results. The volume correction factor reflects an increase in apparent solids loading which becomes greater as the particle size decreases. Also investigated is the effect of various reagents on the rheology of ultrafine coal slurries. Pseudoplastic or dilatant slurry rheologies are shown to be more dependent upon dispersing reagent than the size distribution. / M.S.

Rare earth elements are the 14 lanthanides on the periodic table, plus yttrium and scandium. These elements play a critical role in modern-day technologies such as liquid-crystal displays, GPS systems, and fiber optic cables. A majority of the mining of these elements is from China; however, due to decreasing reserves a need for alternative processes for extracting and processing rare earth elements (REEs) is becoming increasingly important. Special focus has been placed upon the identification of REEs within coal refuse, but the phase designation and speciation is not fully understood. This investigation focuses on the characterization, speciation, and morphology of REEs within fine and coarse coal refuse. During this study, physical and chemical characterization was conducted on coal refuse samples to understand characteristics, which influence REE phase designation. Experimental methods were chosen to specifically evaluate REE content and speciation across four key characteristics: size distribution, density, seam location, and thermal decomposition. Characterization of the refuse material was conducted in two campaigns: (1) an exploratory campaign, which focused on size distribution, and physical imaging of REEs within fine refuse, and (2) a detailed campaign, which utilized sequential chemical extraction methods alongside calcination to understand the phases in which REEs are present in coarse refuse. The results show that REEs within fine coal refuse are smaller than ten microns and found with phosphorus. In general, as size decreased REE content increased, likely due to increased clay content. Further conclusion could not be drawn from simple microscopic analysis. Consequently, detailed chemical characterization was conducted to fully understand REE speciation. The tests showed that a majority of REEs within coarse refuse were within insoluble species. A calcination treatment was found to greatly increase the recovery of REEs from the metal oxide fraction, thus increasing the overall soluble species contained within the coarse refuse material. / Master of Science / Due to increasing global demand and limited reserves, alternative sources for rare earth elements (REEs) have become an increasingly important research topic. REEs are a vital component of many modern technologies, including GPS systems, fiber optic cables, and LCD screens. Current mining of REEs is primarily from Chinese reserves which are becoming increasing depleted and are not strictly regulated for environmental impact. Due to these challenges, other resources of REEs are of increasing importance. Prior research has found coal and associated byproducts to have concentrations of REEs that could be economically exploited, reducing the rate of depletion of REE resources worldwide. To develop more efficient and cost-effective processing methods, fundamental information on the mineral composition of REE-bearing materials is needed. With this information, engineers can develop better processes that can specifically target REE-containing minerals while maximizing economic and environmental outcomes. This research seeks to overcome this knowledge gap through advanced material characterization and well-controlled laboratory process testing of coal refuse. The results show that REEs typically congregate in specific material fractions (e.g. fine size, moderate density), and these materials can be readily transformed through simple heat treatment. This transformation greatly improves the processability and provides a pathway for the economic recovery of REEs from coal wastes. The further development and deployment of these technologies can have societal benefits such as: more jobs, reduced reliance on foreign sources, and environmental cleanup of current coal waste deposits.

In addition to ventilation practices, the application of water via sprays is the most economical and popular means of combating respirable dust in an underground coal mine. Due to a noticeable increase in black lung among coal miners and new dust regulations, surfactants or wetting agents have been used to aid in dust suppression. The surfactant facilitates the wetting process by lowering the surface tension and allowing the hydrophobic coal dust to come into contact with the water. One of the most straightforward and effective benchtop tests is a simple wetting test. Although there are variations of this type of test, principle and technique remain the same. A known amount of dust was placed on the surface of a solution and the time it takes for all the dust to fall through the interface would be the wetting rate. This investigation examined the specific density of the bulk dust and concentration of a surfactant in solution and their effects on the wetting rate. It was found that both factors were significant in determining the wetting rate. It was seen that the surfactant had a more significant effect on the dust which consisted mostly of coal particle when compared to a dust with a higher non-coal mineral content. Additionally, full-scale tests were conducted to determine the effect of the surfactant at a constant concentration. During the field implementation, the surfactant was pumped through the mines spray water to the cutter heads of the continuous miner. A large number of uncontrollable variables present during the implementation, made determining the effects difficult, and the resulting impact from the surfactant inconclusive. Further long-term testing would be needed while accounting for all of the identified variables. Significantly higher concentration was however found when using the continuous personal dust monitor as opposed to the older personal dust samples when left in the same environment. Additionally, a very significant drop in dust concentrations was observed when the miner operators were allowed to activate the scrubbers. / Master of Science / People who work in mines are exposed to many dangers and illnesses. One of the illnesses, which has in recent history resurged, is black lung. Black lung is a disease caused by coal dust entering the lungs. The body’s reaction to it is to build scar tissue around the piece of dust. If this happens enough times over the miner’s career, then it becomes nearly impossible to breath. Normally, to prevent this from happening, water is sprayed in the coal before it is chipped off by the machine. Since this appears to no longer be effective, soapy chemicals are added to the water, which helps to keep the dust from lifting into the air in the first place. One of the easiest ways to test whether the chemicals are working well or not is to conduct a wetting test. When conducting a wetting test, a known about of dust is placed on top of the water and chemical mixture, and the time it takes for all of the dust to be wet is call the wetting rate. To get better results in an actual mine, faster wetting rates were sought after. The wetting test showed that the two main factors which determine the wetting were how much coal is in the coal and rock dust mixture and how much chemical is used. It was seen that the chemical had a more significant effect on the dust which had mostly of coal particle when compared to dust with more rock dust. Another study was conducted at a mine with only one mixture of water and chemical. During the study, the chemical was pumped through the mine and to the cutter heads of the continuous miner. A continuous miner is the name of the equipment used to mine coal and other soft material. The cutter head is the piece of the equipment which actually makes contact with coal. Since the conditions at the mine were not ideal and not enough data was taken, the resulting effect of the chemical could not be certain. More long-term studies need to be done in the future to help account for the less than ideal conditions. There were, however, larger amounts of dust when using new sampling equipment as opposed to the older equipment given the same conditions. Also, smaller amounts of dust were seen when the miner operators were allowed to activate the air cleaning attachments on the continuous miner. These issues should be revisited in the future.

The objective of this investigation was to determine the sensitivity of three selected input parameters in the operational control of continuous bottom-fed thickeners used for the treatment of coal refuse slurries. The three variable parameters were "Feed Flow Rate," "Feed pH," and "Feed Solids Concentration." These three input parameters were studied under three polymeric conditions. The X-ray analysis of underflow refuse samples from two coal preparation plants showed that the samples contained clays of various types. Kaolinite type clay was chosen as the feed material in this investigation. The static settling tests on the kaolinite-water suspensions using polymers showed that slurries with 5.0% or less feed solids concentration could be separated by all the polymeric conditions (cationic, anionic, and cationic-anionic). The continuous solid-liquid separation in the laboratory thickener showed that a 3.0% feed solids was the maximum feed solids concentration that could be used in the continuous thickener operation with the same polymeric conditions. The minimum feed solids concentration was 1.0% solids. The feed pH ranged from 5.0 to 10.0, and the feed flow rate ranged from 915 to 2275 ml/min. The collective determination of the most and least sensitive variables was based on an experimental design procedure, employing Response Surface Methodology (RSM), to develop mathematical models for the thickener control. The three polymeric conditions used were, cationic polymer, anionic polymer, and a combination of cationic-anionic polymer. For each polymeric condition, two mathematical models were developed: one for overflow response, the other for underflow response. The formation of small floes by the cationic polymer produced a sludge bed which prevented the particles from escaping into the overflow. The movement of the sludge bed was rapid. To prevent the bed from passing a pre-determined height, the underflow pump was "on" during most of the experimental time. This situation brought a low solids underflow, but the desired quality of the overflow was reasonably good. The anionic polymer did not produce a good overflow, because neutralization of the surface charges did not occur and a sludge bed never formed. This condition left the underflow pump "off" at all times, except when samples were to be withdrawn for the analysis. Overflow was the worst quality compared to the other polymeric conditions. The underflow quality was better than the underflow of the cationic tests, and almost as good as the underflow with the combination polymer. The use of the combination cationic-anionic polymer produced large floes immediately, because of the surface charge neutralization and bridging action that occurred. The time allowed for this action was longer for low to medium flow rates, producing larger flocs which settled and prevented the formation of a sludge bed. However, the desired quality of overflow and underflow remained good. For the majority of the runs with combination polymer, the underflow pump was "off" at all times, except when samples were withdrawn for the analysis. The overflow and underflow quality was the best desired quality for the combination polymer when compared to the results obtained utilizing the cationic and the anionic polymers separately. The input variables were used to develop six mathematical models. With the aid of the models, contour plots of the main responses were generated; that is, the "suspended solids in the overflow" and the "percent solids in the underflow.” The plots gave regions of the best thickener performance within the wide variations of the three mentioned input variables. The plots would allow an operator to control and/or adjust any of the three variables to achieve optimum conditions. The combination polymers produced the best desired quality of overflow and underflow. For this polymeric condition, changes in the feed solids concentration was the most sensitive factor in the maintenance of the overflow quality, and the feed pH was the most sensitive factor for the maintenance of the underflow quality. The role of the feed flow rate for the maintenance of both overflow and underflow quality was proved to be moderate. / Ph. D.

The hydrogenation of coal to produce petroleum and petroleum products has been an accomplished fact for several years. The investigation in the United states has been carried to the point of constructing a full-scale plant to attempt to put the process on a commercial production basis. The volatile matter and fixed carbo of a coal are the constituents which enter into the hydrogenation reaction. The volatile matter is considered to be mostly unsaturated aromatic compounds which are readily hydrogenated. Midlothian coal contains 33 per cent volatile matter, as compared with 10 to 20 per cent in higher grade coals, and for this reason this coal was selected for this investigation. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effect of particle size, initial hydrogen pressure from 1200 to 1800 pound per square inch gage, recycled vehicles and time of reaction on the per cent liquefaction that could be obtained. A parr high pressure hydrogenation bomb with auxiliary heating and agitating apparatus was used in this investigation. The degree of liquefaction was determined by comparison of the weight of the residual coal after hydrogenation with the weight of the original coal sample. The basic assumption of the investigation was that any loss in weight of the coal was due to liquefaction of the coal, and the products lost to the atmosphere in the gases were not considered. The reactants placed in the bomb were Midlothian coal, the vehicle tetralin (or recycled tetralin or tar residue from previous tests), stannous sulfide catalyst, and hydrogen. A series of tests was made to determine the effect of pressure, particle size, recycled tetralin as the vehicle, tar residue from previous tests as the vehicle, and time on the hydrogenation reaction. The pressure range used was from 1200 to 1800 pounds per square inch gage; the temperature was used 385°C; the time of reaction was varied from one to eight hours, the catalyst used was always equal to one per cent by the weight of the coal sample; and the vehicle to coal ratio was always 3.8;1 based on the weight of the coal. A coal particle size in the range of 139-104 microns in diameter, or passed through a 100-mesh screen, but retained on a 140-mesh screen gave a maximum liquefaction of 85 per cent. An initial hydrogen pressure of 1800 pounds per square inch gage gave a maximum liquefaction of 89.5 per cent. A reaction time of three hours gave a maximum liquefaction of 88 per cent. These percentages agree closely with the maximum of 92 per cent obtained by the U.S. Bureau of Mines in hydrogenation research⁽¹¹⁶⁾. Further findings were that the use of recycled tetralin as the vehicle had no effect on the per cent liquefaction obtained, but that the use as the vehicle of the tar fractions of the products from previous tests decreased the per cent liquefaction of the coal from 85 per cent to 70 per cent based on the weight of the coal. / M.S.

Mechanized mining techniques that are commonly used in the coal industry produce a large amount of fine particles. These fines are extremely difficult to recover by conventional flotation methods, mainly because of the large size of the bubbles produced relative to the size of the particles. Hydrodynamic analyses have shown, however, that the use of smaller air bubbles can improve the flotation rate of these fines and, hence, the coal recovery. In the present work, a microbubble generator has been developed that produces bubbles smaller than 100 microns in diameter. Batch flotation tests conducted on samples from five different coal seams have demonstrated that the microbubble flotation process produces improved recoveries and often cleaner products than the conventional flotation process. The higher recoveries are a result of the increased bubble-particle collision efficiencies obtained with smaller bubbles, and also the larger number of bubbles produced in the microbubble process. The improved selectivity has been explained tentatively by the longer froth residence time in the microbubble process, along with the increased bubble loading and the reduced turbulence around the microbubbles. Various techniques have proven successful in further improving the selectivity by reducing the entrainment and/or entrapment of ash in the froth. To better understand the mechanisms of microbubble flotation, basic information regarding surface tension, contact angles, viscosity, streaming currents of microbubbles, electrophoretic mobilities of coal and mineral particles, and the stability of microbubble suspensions has been obtained using two non-ionic frothers. Microbubble flotation results obtained using each of these frothers have also been compared. / Master of Science