Agnew's (1985, 1992) General Strain Theory (GST) proposed that strain, the presence of negative events in one's life, is related to an individual's level of delinquent behavior. In particular, strains elicit a negative emotional response (most notably anger), creating a pressure within the individual to react or cope. Additionally, GST suggests that individuals who lack more conventional means to cope with negative life stressors will turn to delinquent coping mechanisms, such as retaliatory or escape-avoidance behaviors, to reduce the stress. The primary aim of this work is to test whether a proposed pro-social coping mechanism, cognitive coping (Agnew 1992, 2001, 2006), influences the strain-delinquency relationship; particularly whether the ability to cognitively cope reduces the use of deviant coping mechanisms. Utilizing data from the base year of the Educational Longitudinal Study (ELS: 2002), this analysis will test whether encountering negative stimuli within the school setting is positively related to students' levels of delinquency. Further, it examines whether cognitive/problem-solving ability has a moderating effect on this relationship. Analysis indicate that when faced with similar levels of strain, individuals with higher cognitive coping abilities are less likely to resort to delinquent coping mechanisms. Arming students with tools to cognitively reinterpret the strains they encounter may lessen the occurrence of delinquent behaviors exhibited in schools (Pearlin 1989; Agnew 2006). Expanding knowledge of what factors negatively influence students, causing them to demonstrate delinquent behaviors in school, and avenues for handling these stressors may have widespread policy and curriculum implications.

Background: The first aim of this thesis was to systematically review the evidence for the impact of interpersonal trauma in childhood on appraisals of auditory hallucinations in adulthood. Informed by this systematic review and cognitive models of psychosis, potential moderators of the relationship between trauma and distress were proposed. Hypotheses: It was hypothesised that the experience of interpersonal trauma in childhood would predict ‘self blaming’ and ‘danger to self’ appraisals made by voice hearers about their auditory hallucinations. It was predicted that these appraisals would interact with the use of avoidant and non avoidant coping strategies and that this would predict wellbeing. Method 1 and results: In order to measure voice appraisals, the Interpretation of Voices Inventory was adapted. It was completed by one hundred and thirteen voice hearing participants and confirmatory factor analysis was used to test the predicted factors. Most items covaried with their respective factors acceptably. A number of items did not load well and it was recommended that they be removed from the measure. The amended factor structure improved the fit of the measure to an acceptable standard. Method 2 and results: Sixty two participants completed additional measures of interpersonal trauma in childhood and wellbeing. Structural equation modeling provided support for a link between severity of childhood trauma and ‘danger to self’ appraisals. ‘Danger to self’ appraisals predicted the use of acceptance based coping and this predicted wellbeing. Independent of this model, interpersonal coping was shown to predict the use of psychological explanations for the experience of auditory hallucinations. Psychological explanations did not predict acceptance or wellbeing. Discussion: It may be clinically helpful to test acceptance based interventions using ‘danger to self’ appraisals as an outcome measure in the future. Possible factors that may have influenced the results were reflected on. The potentially negative impact of insight on wellbeing was discussed. Stigma was highlighted as a potential barrier to non avoidant coping

The objective of this research is to explore the extent to which current models of decision-making and entrepreneurial cognition are relevant to a sample of true novice entrepreneurs, those who are in the process of founding their first business venture. Novice entrepreneurs are recognised as being essential to sustaining the entrepreneurial churn in economies (Disney, Haskel & Heden, 2003) especially as the young firm population requires new entrants. The need arises because of the high rates of churning observed in populations of young firms that require a constant inflow of new ventures to renew the stock of businesses (Ganguly, 1985). Whilst some studies of the behaviour of entrepreneurs do focus on relatively young firms (e.g. Chandler, DeTienne, McKelvie, & Mumford, 2011) studies of true novice entrepreneurs are rare. The thesis seeks to address this gap in the literature. A sample of true novice entrepreneurs, that founded businesses in 2013 and 2014, is interviewed to explore their decision-making and cognition regarding a realistic new business case study. The approach replicates that used by other authors who have studied expert entrepreneurs (Sarasvathy, 2001; Sarasvathy, 2008; Chandler et al., 2011; Dew, Read, Sarasvathy & Wiltbank, 2009) using a think-aloud protocol to identify causation and effectuation styles. However, by using a mixed methods approach of concurrent and retrospective think-aloud aspects it was possible to identify novice decision-making and to capture the prior experiences that they referred to (Banks, Stanton & Harvey, 2014). The sample of 32 true novices was a randomised sub-set of 1128 business founders in the UK. The experimental protocol enabled a comparison with alternative expertise theories of feedback and linear thinking in decision-making (Winch & Maytorena, 2009). The key findings were contrary to the hypotheses; the true novices were both more effectual and more casual than expected; and furthermore were frequently using feedback loops in their decision-making. In addition, as the novice entrepreneurs reflected upon their experiences that informed their decisions, the literature predicts that novice entrepreneurs would have to adopt analytical approaches to decision making as they lack salient experiences to inform their decisions in the early years of trading. However, contrary to expectations, the novices used both analogical and heuristic sense-making approaches and were adept at switching between them (Jones & Casulli, 2014). The outcome of the experimental protocol offers insights into the extent to which the current literature captures the decision-making processes and entrepreneurial cognition of true novice entrepreneurs. The evidence is mixed, offering the opportunity for further refinement of existing theoretical constructs, and reinforcing the relevance of alternative theories of cognition and decision making for novice entrepreneurs, for government policies and the support networks and that provide resources to assist the creation and survival of new entrepreneurial ventures. In addition, for novice entrepreneurs, this research examined the relevance and influence of their prior experiences and emotions on their entrepreneurial decision-making. In founding their first business, the prediction for novices is that they would struggle to draw on appropriate experiences (Mathias, Williams & Smith, 2015). However, the results showed novices referencing a wide variety of experiences, with the majority of these based on personal events that they had directly experienced either in their current start-up or previous work activity. Emotions are believed to influence entrepreneurs’ abilities to cope with uncertainty in business decision making and to persist in their endeavours in the face of adverse experiences and entrepreneurs are predicted to be over optimistic (Koellinger, Minniti & Schade, 2007; Ucbasaran, Westhead, Wright & Flores, 2010). The research profiled the novices’ emotions using the internationally externally validated PANAS (Positive and Negative Affect) scale (Watson, Clark & Tellegan, 1988) and the findings showed the novices engaged consistently with their underlying trait emotions however, interestingly, they were not statistically more optimistic than the UK population (Thompson, 2007). The findings make a contribution to both the theoretical explanations and practical aspects of novice entrepreneurship and show the appropriateness of relating current research to widely used measures from other fields of study, particularly as the impact of emotions is currently influencing the future of entrepreneurship research (Cardon, Foo, Shepherd & Wiklund, 2012; Shepherd, 2015).

Although thet:e has been gradual awat:eness of leat:ning disabilities aftet: Wodd Wat: II, it was in the late 1960's that compt:ehensive assessment and special education wet:e provided in schools. Specifically, in the at:ea of services for families, a reaffirmation of the fundamental rights of chilruen and families emerges. Although stress associated with the presence of a learning disabled child is an important consideration, its impact on the family is related to the family members' cognitive appraisal of the stress situation and thett copmg resources. Parents of learning disabled chilruen experience more stress, often exacerbated by faulty, misunderstood coping efforts that increase conflict in the family. Reseat:chers have investigated how: families manage stress; and cope with the multiple stt:esses of rearing a learning disabled children. It has been found that while many families cope, others cannot. Stress theory has dttected our attention to circumstances that weaken families and exacerbate distress. Preventative and ameliorative services at:e needed to assist such families. Stress and coping theory suggest that differences in families' reactions to learning disabilities may be related to amount and quality of resources available to pat:ents. This involves cognitive adaptation using coping skills, enabling them to t:e-evaluate stressful events positively. Another resource would be professionals, whose role would be of a facilitator, strengthening the ability of the family to gain access to needed services while increasing the family's mastery of coping with learning disability. Research has shown that parents' initial contact with learning disability and how to assist their learning disabled child was stressful. After parents received counselling on coping with their stress and stress management, and after the child's psycho-educational assessment and remedial measures were implemented, there has been significant positive feedback from parents and children. Research would embrace relationships between perceptions and family well-being using Ellis's rational-emotive therapy, thereby contributing to better understanding of how families cope with stress. Ayurvedic principles would be used to adopt a holistic approach to life. By using RET and A yurvedics the researcher was able to assist parents with learning disabled children to cope better with their stresses and effectively manage their child's learning disability. / Psychology of Education / D. Ed. (Psychology of Education)

Although thet:e has been gradual awat:eness of leat:ning disabilities aftet: Wodd Wat: II, it was in the late 1960's that compt:ehensive assessment and special education wet:e provided in schools. Specifically, in the at:ea of services for families, a reaffirmation of the fundamental rights of chilruen and families emerges. Although stress associated with the presence of a learning disabled child is an important consideration, its impact on the family is related to the family members' cognitive appraisal of the stress situation and thett copmg resources. Parents of learning disabled chilruen experience more stress, often exacerbated by faulty, misunderstood coping efforts that increase conflict in the family. Reseat:chers have investigated how: families manage stress; and cope with the multiple stt:esses of rearing a learning disabled children. It has been found that while many families cope, others cannot. Stress theory has dttected our attention to circumstances that weaken families and exacerbate distress. Preventative and ameliorative services at:e needed to assist such families. Stress and coping theory suggest that differences in families' reactions to learning disabilities may be related to amount and quality of resources available to pat:ents. This involves cognitive adaptation using coping skills, enabling them to t:e-evaluate stressful events positively. Another resource would be professionals, whose role would be of a facilitator, strengthening the ability of the family to gain access to needed services while increasing the family's mastery of coping with learning disability. Research has shown that parents' initial contact with learning disability and how to assist their learning disabled child was stressful. After parents received counselling on coping with their stress and stress management, and after the child's psycho-educational assessment and remedial measures were implemented, there has been significant positive feedback from parents and children. Research would embrace relationships between perceptions and family well-being using Ellis's rational-emotive therapy, thereby contributing to better understanding of how families cope with stress. Ayurvedic principles would be used to adopt a holistic approach to life. By using RET and A yurvedics the researcher was able to assist parents with learning disabled children to cope better with their stresses and effectively manage their child's learning disability. / Psychology of Education / D. Ed. (Psychology of Education)