The social anxiety literature often cites the self-medication hypothesis (SMH) to explain why socially phobic clients often present with alcohol problems. Based on some earlier hints that social anxiety and drinking might be related in a curvilinear way, we sought to examine the SMH to assess for possible non-linear relationships, and to examine whether cultural differences affect these relationships. We surveyed self-reported social anxiety, alcohol expectancies, and alcohol use in college students from Cyprus (N=127) and the United States (US) (N=697). Participants were college students with a mean age of 19.8. Results revealed that positive and negative expectations about alcohol use were predictive of drinking for students from both cultures. Cypriot students endorsed fewer positive and more negative expectancies regarding alcohol use than their US counterparts, and engaged in less binge drinking. Social anxiety in men was related to drinking via a curvilinear relationship, in which drinking peaks at moderate levels of social anxiety. Among men, those with highest levels of social anxiety in both cultures drink the least. For women, there was no relationship between social anxiety level and drinking behavior. These findings demonstrate the complexity of the relationship between social anxiety and alcohol use. Far from being a linear relationship, these two variables are related in a curvilinear fashion, for men. This should inform future research on the SMH.

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The present study evaluated a brief intervention targeting reduction of heavy drinking in college females. Within the context of this brief intervention outcome study Bandura’s (1986) model of self-regulation was tested. Seventy-six heavy drinking college females (minimum of four drinking occasions during past month with Blood Alcohol Concentration estimated at .08% or greater) participated in the intervention. Subjects participated in brief individual assessment sessions and all subjects were provided with drinking reduction information and strategies. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of three goal-setting conditions (no goal; proximal drinking reduction goal, distal drinking reduction goal). Within each of these three goal conditions subjects were randomly assigned to receive feedback on their drinking behavior or to not receive drinking behavior feedback. Subjects were reassessed one month and two months later on measures of drinking behavior and self-regulation variables (commitment to not drinking heavily, efficacy for not drinking heavily and discrepancy/discomfort relative to drinking heavily). Contrary to hypotheses, goal-setting, the provision of feedback, or the combination of goal-setting and feedback was not superior to assessment and information in the reduction of heavy drinking. However, all conditions revealed a significant decrease in drinking across time. Although the self-regulation variables of efficacy and commitment related negatively to future drinking behavior in univariate correlational analyses, the interaction of the self-regulation variables (efficacy, commitment and discrepancy) failed to add to the prediction of future drinking beyond that accounted for by current drinking and the main effects of the self-regulation variables. The theoretically derived hypotheses were not supported by the present study. Procedural and theoretical limitations of self-regulation relative to reduction of heavy drinking in college females, as well as the difficulties involved in changing college student drinking given strong contextual influences are discussed. / Ph. D.

Master of Science / Department of Psychological Sciences / Laura A. Brannon / Previous research has repeatedly demonstrated that undergraduate students overrate others’ norm comfort with and consumption of alcohol (i.e., Prentice & Miller, 1993). This is a dangerous misperception, as students are increasing their personal alcohol intake and / or frequency in order to match their incorrect perception of how much everyone else is drinking. Already assuming that their peers are more comfortable with, and consume more, alcohol than they do, college students’ perception of norm alcohol use may be influenced by peer comments indicating approval / disapproval of alcohol use. Thus, the present study experimentally tested whether a positive or negative comment in reaction to a portrayal of excessive drinking would influence participants’ perceptions of drinking behavior among their campus peers, and whether the sex of the person making the comment differentially influences participants’ perceptions of each sex’s extent of participation in drinking. Participants’ perceptions of drinking behavior were not influenced by the confederate comment nor confederate sex; however, participants consistently estimated that the drinking norm is higher for males than females. Additionally, female participants perceived the drinking norm to be higher than did male participants. Participants’ ratings of the confederates did differ, however, depending on the comment; participants rated the confederates more favorably when the comment made was negative / criticizing of excessive drinking than when the comment made was positive / endorsing of excessive drinking.

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This exploratory study ( n =55) informs efforts aimed at addressing the problem of collegiate high-risk drinking by evaluating the effectiveness of three methods for teaching standard drink measures to first-year college students. These methods include the use of numeric measures in ounces, two-dimensional (2-D) images, and three-dimensional (3-D) models. All of these represent the appropriate volume for four standard drinks—beer, wine, hard alcohol, and alcohol contained in one mixed drink—as defined by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). By increasing students’ knowledge of standard drink measures and their own accurate pouring ability, they may improve their efficacious use of protective strategies, including tracking of the number of drinks they consume. In this study, when the distinction between over-pouring and under-pouring was eliminated and the absolute values of the percentages of inaccurate pouring became the focus, all three interventions were found to improve the accuracy of the ability to pour standard-size mixed drinks. Although violations to some of the statistical assumptions underlying ANOVA precluded use of this inferential technique to directly compare the three interventions, the data analytic approaches used did suggest that both the 2-D and the 3-D interventions may be more beneficial, overall, than the NIAAA numerical intervention. Associations between knowledge of standard drink measures, self-efficacy in pouring standard drinks, self-efficacy in using protective strategies, use of protective strategies, pouring accuracy, alcohol consumption, and negative consequences associated with alcohol usage were explored. Use of 3-D standard drink models offers prevention educators a simple yet potentially more effective method for teaching students and can be conducted easily in a variety of educational settings. Additionally, this type of education may ultimately improve the accuracy of data collection on student drinking. Suggestions for both administrators and further research are presented.

Objective: The study examined alcohol consumption among college women ages 18 to 24. It helped to answer who, when, what, why and how much college women drink. It also examined how "girls gone wild" kinds of portrayals influence college women in excessive drinking and "outrageous" behaviors. Theory: A combination of drench hypothesis (Greenberg, 1988) and social cognitive theory (Bandura, 2001) was used as the guiding framework to understand the dynamic relationship of environmental and personal factors in learning and imitating behaviors seen in the media. Method: Two online studies were conducted. The first study was a structured interview conducted with 38 women and 29 men. Study 2 was a survey. A total of 449 college women took part in the survey. Some men (N=174) also took part in the study to provide men's opinions and some perspective on women who drink and behave outrageously. Results: The survey results show that 42% (N=169) of college women in the sample engage in heavy episodic drinking every weekend at house parties. As a result, some have gotten into fights, missed classes, experienced hangovers and vomiting, and have driven drunk. Nearly 14% (N=55) of the women in the study reported being sexually assaulted while they were drunk. In addition, the findings of the study shows that "girls gone wild" kinds of portrayals are perceived in different ways by different college women. Most college women view the behaviors as negative. However, some college women do evaluate the portrayals as positive. These women are likely to engage in similar outrageous behaviors. The "girls gone wild" kinds of portrayals are less likely to influence alcohol consumption among college women. A multiple regression analysis showed that outrageous behavior correlated with self-control, sexual outcome expected, positive evaluation of the "girls gone wild" portrayals and sensation seeking tendencies. Drinking on the other hand correlated only with sensation seeking tendencies and how much value was placed by the respondents on being social. The findings of the study also show that men assess drunken women as vulnerable and "easy." Conclusion: Interventions that include strategies for better self-regulation and explaining of potential negative outcomes are likely to be effective in drinking and drinking-related behaviors. Media literacy programs might help in critical evaluation of media content and thus reduce its negative influence. / Mass Media and Communication

Social anxiety disorder (SAD) and alcohol use disorders (AUDs; i.e., alcohol dependence, alcohol abuse) are highly prevalent and potentially debilitating. They also commonly co-occur, and when they do, their combined effect may be even more devastating. The onset of SAD most commonly precedes the onset of AUDs, suggesting that SAD may be a marker or risk factor for the onset of these other disorders. Previous research has not sufficiently examined the mechanisms involved in the development of AUDs, and longitudinal research is lacking. The current study examined mechanisms related to the development of AUDs among incoming college freshman students at two large universities in the United States. Incoming freshmen are at higher risk for developing symptoms consistent with SAD, particularly during their first semester, and they may be more likely to cope with their symptoms of anxiety by drinking alcohol. The current study aimed to explicate the relationship between social anxiety and alcohol consumption in college freshmen. Baseline data collection occurred late in the summer after registration for the Fall semester or early in the Fall semester. Follow-up data collection occurred later in the Fall semester. It was expected that social anxiety, the quantity and frequency of drinking alcohol (including frequency of intoxication), and alcohol-related problems would increase among the freshmen over the course of the fall semester. Additionally, several relationships among the variables being examined were hypothesized. Drinking motives, symptoms of depression, and quality of life were expected to mediate the relationship between social anxiety and the drinking outcome variables. In addition, expectancies about alcohol consumption were expected to moderate the mediated relationship. However, there were no increases in social anxiety, alcohol consumption, or alcohol-related problems between baseline and follow-up. There were few hypothesized relationships found, although there was a positive relationship between social anxiety and negative alcohol expectancies and a negative relationship between social anxiety and quality of life. Model testing generated one promising model in which the relationship of positive expectancies regarding alcohol use to alcohol use and problems was mediated by coping with anxiety drinking motives. In particular, the main effect of positive expectancies of alcohol and coping with anxiety drinking motives generated a medium effect whereas the other relationships generated small to medium effects. Clinical implications and limitations of the current study are discussed. / Psychology