This study extends the understanding of leadership emergence from a relational perspective (Hosking, 2011; Cunliffe & Eriksen, 2011; Uhl-Bien, 2006), specifically related to the forming of trusting relationships. The argument follows from the conceptual development of subjectification processes referred to as “care of the self” (Foucault M. , 1988; Foucault M. , 2005) and the implications of “regimes of practices" (Foucault M. , 2010; Dean, 2010). The findings contribute to our understanding of the relation between patterns of differentiation and reciprocity (as contextual definitions) and the relational emergence of leadership. We conceive leadership formed by actions that have no instrumental purpose beyond constructing a subject able to form trusting relationships and judge this to be a phronetic practice. The research is based on a case study of the executive team of a large copper mining company implementing a sustainability strategy that has as its central purpose the construction of trusting relations within a complex net of stakeholders. Based on this case, my second contribution is to conceptualise the function of “parrhēsia practice” (Foucault M. , 2010), a “truth game” about truth, truth-telling and action in the relation of the self and others, which is significant in the formation of the relational leadership of the “conscious pariah” (Arendt, 1978). The study examines how it is that “truth games” of examining the self and “reframing” interactional patterns can facilitate the relational emergence of phronetic forms of leadership. The research methodology, designed to deal from a non-dualistic perspective with the relational emergence of leadership, uses a narrative research approach to describe practices (Czarniawska, Narratives in Social Science Research, 2011). It is “uncovered” as representational and dualistic in the research relation, and a discussion of how a non-dualistic research approach could be developed is provided.

A major challenge in agroecosystems is how to manage the systems so that it reduces crop pests and enhances natural pest control. This thesis investigates patterns of crop pests and top-down effects of birds and arthropod predators in relation to land-use composition across spatial scales. In paper (I) I examined the crop distribution and land-use types in relation to the crop raiding patterns in 15 transectsin sites close to and far from forests along with a questionnaire survey at household level. I found severe crop raiding close to forests, but it had no impact on crop composition growing between the two sites. In paper (II) I examined the effect of forest and tree cover, at local and landscape scales, on the abundance of arthropod predators by collecting specimens from 40 home gardens. My result showed higher abundance of arthropod predators when either the home garden or the surroundings had a high tree-cover, compared to when tree-cover at both scales was similarly either high or low. In paper (III) I investigated the effect of excluding birds and arthropod predators on leaf damage on rape seed in 26 home gardens. I found stronger top-down impacts from arthropod predators on crop pests in tree-poor gardens than in tree-rich gardens. There was no effect of birds. In paper (IV) I explored the effect of landscape complexity on bird and arthropod predation using plasticine caterpillars in 36 home gardens across landscapes. The rate of arthropod predation on caterpillars was higher in simple than in complex landscapes. The rate of bird predation did not vary between complex and simple landscapes. In simple landscapes, arthropod predation was higher than that of birds. The overall results suggest that simplified gardens/landscapes still have enough habitat heterogeneity to support arthropod predators for the significant top-down controlling effect on crop pests. However, I did not find clear effect of complexityon the top-down effect of birds. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defence the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 1: Manuscript; Paper 3: Manuscript; Paper 4: Manuscript</p>

Relationships, according to national and international research, play a crucial role in the promotion of holistic well-being in school communities. However, the central role of relationships in school communities is not fully appreciated in the South African context. Concurrently, a gap in research on the promotion of relational well-being in South African school communities exists. The importance of addressing this shortcoming is especially evident when viewing recent research literature and media reports on dysfunctional behaviour in school communities, such as violence, bullying, child abuse, inappropriate sexual behaviour, and alcohol and substance abuse. These dysfunctional behaviours indicate the extent to which relational well-being is currently compromised in South African school communities. This study intends to address the abovementioned gap in knowledge regarding the promotion of relational well-being in school communities. The aim was obtained by involving a group of postgraduate students, enrolled for a Master’s or Doctoral programme with a focus on relational well-being, and who work in school environments in various capacities and contexts. The research was informed by a combination of theoretical lenses that offer a holistic, multi-dimensional, strength-based approach to the understanding of relational well-being, and acknowledge the complexity of relationships. A qualitative phenomenological research design was applied using the World Café method, to facilitate a space within which these students could reflect on the promotion of relational well-being in school communities. A total of 29 participants, selected by means of purposive and convenience sampling, were involved in a World Café event, and twenty of these participants completed an open-ended questionnaire, developed with the aim of crystallising the data obtained from the World Café. Thematic analysis of the data was conducted and four main themes were identified: Firstly, the participants reflected on the complex, integrated nature of the process of promoting relational well-being, from an eco-systemic perspective. Based on this understanding, they viewed members of the school community as inseparably integrated and bi-directionally influencing one another, as also indicated by complex dynamic interactive systems theorists. They also mentioned that certain environmental influences could impair relational well-being. Secondly, they reflected on the promotion of relational well-being as a collaborative and inclusive process that involves all the members of the school community and requires all of them to take responsibility. The teachers’ and school managements’ role as leaders in facilitating the process was specifically highlighted, although the parents/caretakers were also seen as bearing a responsibility in this regard. Therefore, home-school collaboration was emphasised. Thirdly, they reflected on the challenges relating to the promotion of relational well-being in school communities. These challenges encompassed the need to equip and support teachers and parents to be able to promote relational well-being, addressing the imbalanced focus on academics and achievement in schools at the expense of relationships, and the need to promote relational well-being more proactively by addressing the way in which limited time and large class sizes jeopardise relational well-being. Lastly, perceived key elements of interrelatedness for the promotion of relational well-being in school communities were highlighted. These key elements include respectful engagements, acceptance of one another, positive communication based on trust, a sense of belonging or connectedness, and care and support. In view of the findings of the study, recommendations are made to the Department of Education as well as to school management teams. Finally, recommendations regarding future research are offered. / MA (Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Globally there seems to be an increase in psychosocial problems in school communities. This tendency can largely be contributed to the increasing complexity of modern society. Research studies indicate that for an organisation like a school to survive and improve the wellbeing of its members, it should become more flexible and adjustable to all sociological changes. In this study, it is reasoned that the complexity of human behaviour as well as the complex nature of a school community are not always fully realised. Leadership is thus not always able to make adjustments to enable the school to adjust to an ever-changing complex modern society. Internationally, most governments address this problem by the implementation of programmes and policies that acknowledge the necessity to view a school community as being part of broader eco-systems. The introduction of whole-school approaches in schools addresses this interaction and the dependency between systems. The reasoning is that change is more likely to occur when the whole community shares a collective vision about their plans, aspirations, and goals. Despite policies that support multi-dimensional interactive approaches, it is unfortunately plagued by systemic problems due to a lack to fully accommodate an understanding of complexity of human behaviour and systems. Although the holistic and collective principles are implicated in policies, the importance of the dynamic nature of relationships does not always receive the necessary attention. This purpose of this study is to focus on the potential of dynamic relationships in order to create a more humanised school community by utilizing dynamic interactive relational processes in the promotion of relational wellbeing. The emphasis is therefore on the role that school leaders can play to promote relational wellbeing by utilising this dynamic nature of relationships as a means to influence and change rigid authoritative leadership control by adopting a more transformative leadership style. Unless school leaders of the future become more sophisticated in their understanding of the complexity and the dynamic relational processes of human behaviour, it is unlikely that relational wellbeing in schools will be promoted. The researcher found it necessary to focus primarily on the current perceptions of leaders at all levels in a secondary school community. The challenge was an attempt to gain a better understanding of their experiences and thoughts about the restraining factors that affected the promotion of relational wellbeing can be addressed and challenged. Accordingly, a single qualitative research case study, consisting of an appreciative inquiry (AI), which was followed-up by a working session, was conducted at this school. In view of the findings of study, several recommendations were made for practice and policy development. / MA (Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

School communities are supposed to be safe places for children where they can build healthy and positive relationships; protected places where children not only gain knowledge, but also learn about themselves. However, research indicates an increase in violent behaviour within school communities. The serious nature of violence in South African schools is evident in reports of physical and sexual abuse, gang-related activities and children bringing and using weapons at schools. The violence is not limited to violence between children but also involves interschool rivalries where gang conflicts have become part of the problem. Despite the measures taken by the DoE, violence in schools is still escalating and educators in some schools can spend more time on solving issues relating to violence than being involved in the process of effective teaching. Consequently violence in schools might become a threat to the provision of effective education for children. Current South African research on bullying behaviour tends to follow a linear, individualistic approach as a means to understanding the phenomenon of bullying. Research conducted within the South African context tends to focus on the individual behaviour of children involved in bullying incidents with the need to address the aggressive behaviour of the bully, the need to protect the victim and describing concerns for the bystanders. The concern of such a linear approach is that research does not place enough emphasis on the relationships of members in school communities and the contexts in which bullying behaviour occurs. To address this gap in the knowledge regarding our understanding of bullying behaviour from a relational perspective, the researcher explored the relational experiences of secondary school children who were involved in bullying incidents in three secondary school communities in South Africa. A systemic developmental approach developed by Cairns and Cairns (1991) and adopted by Atlas and Pepler (1998) as well as a complex interactive dynamics systems approach informed this study. The purpose of this study is to contribute to efforts to find solutions to the escalation of bullying behaviour by exploring the relational experiences of children who were involved in bullying incidents in the context of secondary school communities in South Africa. It is anticipated that an exploration of the relational experiences of these children might facilitate a deeper understanding of the dynamics that emerge in the interactions between the various members in school communities and an understanding of how these interactions contribute toward the escalation in bullying behaviour. In order to obtain a deeper understanding regarding the phenomenon of bullying, a qualitative phenomenological study was conducted to explore the relational experiences of children involved in bullying incidents within three secondary school communities. Within the first phase of data collection thirty three participants (between grade 8-11), who were purposely selected, completed a written assignment. The written assignment included a short essay based on their experience of a bullying incident and twenty incomplete sentences that were open-ended in nature. In the second phase of data collection the researcher conducted semi- structured interviews with six of the participants who participated in the first phase of data collection. The semi-structured interviews allowed the researcher to ask further questions to obtain a deeper understanding regarding their relational experiences of bullying incidents in their school community. Based on the responses of the participants, three themes were identified: (1) Relational experiences of interactions between teachers and children based on the experiences of children where they spoke about interactions that suggested reciprocal disrespect between children and teachers, incongruence between teachers and learners, teachers attempting to control the behaviour of children and lack of interest displayed in children by their teachers; (2) Relational experiences of interactions between children that included subthemes of assertion of power to obtain status amongst peers, exclusion based on group membership, competiveness amongst groups and violating the trust of friends; (3) Relational experiences of interactions in conflict situations where participants described their bullying experiences and suggested that teachers display apathy in these forms of conflict situations. The participants also reported that children tend to instigate and reinforce conflict. Learners also often choose to remain silent out of fear for retaliation and that teacher-parent disputes exist regarding the managing of conflict situations between children. The relational experiences of the children assisted to inform our understanding of the interactive dynamics that underpin bullying behaviour. In view of the findings of the study, recommendations are made for practice, policy development and suggestions for future research are also offered. / MA (Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Relationships, according to national and international research, play a crucial role in the promotion of holistic well-being in school communities. However, the central role of relationships in school communities is not fully appreciated in the South African context. Concurrently, a gap in research on the promotion of relational well-being in South African school communities exists. The importance of addressing this shortcoming is especially evident when viewing recent research literature and media reports on dysfunctional behaviour in school communities, such as violence, bullying, child abuse, inappropriate sexual behaviour, and alcohol and substance abuse. These dysfunctional behaviours indicate the extent to which relational well-being is currently compromised in South African school communities. This study intends to address the abovementioned gap in knowledge regarding the promotion of relational well-being in school communities. The aim was obtained by involving a group of postgraduate students, enrolled for a Master’s or Doctoral programme with a focus on relational well-being, and who work in school environments in various capacities and contexts. The research was informed by a combination of theoretical lenses that offer a holistic, multi-dimensional, strength-based approach to the understanding of relational well-being, and acknowledge the complexity of relationships. A qualitative phenomenological research design was applied using the World Café method, to facilitate a space within which these students could reflect on the promotion of relational well-being in school communities. A total of 29 participants, selected by means of purposive and convenience sampling, were involved in a World Café event, and twenty of these participants completed an open-ended questionnaire, developed with the aim of crystallising the data obtained from the World Café. Thematic analysis of the data was conducted and four main themes were identified: Firstly, the participants reflected on the complex, integrated nature of the process of promoting relational well-being, from an eco-systemic perspective. Based on this understanding, they viewed members of the school community as inseparably integrated and bi-directionally influencing one another, as also indicated by complex dynamic interactive systems theorists. They also mentioned that certain environmental influences could impair relational well-being. Secondly, they reflected on the promotion of relational well-being as a collaborative and inclusive process that involves all the members of the school community and requires all of them to take responsibility. The teachers’ and school managements’ role as leaders in facilitating the process was specifically highlighted, although the parents/caretakers were also seen as bearing a responsibility in this regard. Therefore, home-school collaboration was emphasised. Thirdly, they reflected on the challenges relating to the promotion of relational well-being in school communities. These challenges encompassed the need to equip and support teachers and parents to be able to promote relational well-being, addressing the imbalanced focus on academics and achievement in schools at the expense of relationships, and the need to promote relational well-being more proactively by addressing the way in which limited time and large class sizes jeopardise relational well-being. Lastly, perceived key elements of interrelatedness for the promotion of relational well-being in school communities were highlighted. These key elements include respectful engagements, acceptance of one another, positive communication based on trust, a sense of belonging or connectedness, and care and support. In view of the findings of the study, recommendations are made to the Department of Education as well as to school management teams. Finally, recommendations regarding future research are offered. / MA (Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Globally there seems to be an increase in psychosocial problems in school communities. This tendency can largely be contributed to the increasing complexity of modern society. Research studies indicate that for an organisation like a school to survive and improve the wellbeing of its members, it should become more flexible and adjustable to all sociological changes. In this study, it is reasoned that the complexity of human behaviour as well as the complex nature of a school community are not always fully realised. Leadership is thus not always able to make adjustments to enable the school to adjust to an ever-changing complex modern society. Internationally, most governments address this problem by the implementation of programmes and policies that acknowledge the necessity to view a school community as being part of broader eco-systems. The introduction of whole-school approaches in schools addresses this interaction and the dependency between systems. The reasoning is that change is more likely to occur when the whole community shares a collective vision about their plans, aspirations, and goals. Despite policies that support multi-dimensional interactive approaches, it is unfortunately plagued by systemic problems due to a lack to fully accommodate an understanding of complexity of human behaviour and systems. Although the holistic and collective principles are implicated in policies, the importance of the dynamic nature of relationships does not always receive the necessary attention. This purpose of this study is to focus on the potential of dynamic relationships in order to create a more humanised school community by utilizing dynamic interactive relational processes in the promotion of relational wellbeing. The emphasis is therefore on the role that school leaders can play to promote relational wellbeing by utilising this dynamic nature of relationships as a means to influence and change rigid authoritative leadership control by adopting a more transformative leadership style. Unless school leaders of the future become more sophisticated in their understanding of the complexity and the dynamic relational processes of human behaviour, it is unlikely that relational wellbeing in schools will be promoted. The researcher found it necessary to focus primarily on the current perceptions of leaders at all levels in a secondary school community. The challenge was an attempt to gain a better understanding of their experiences and thoughts about the restraining factors that affected the promotion of relational wellbeing can be addressed and challenged. Accordingly, a single qualitative research case study, consisting of an appreciative inquiry (AI), which was followed-up by a working session, was conducted at this school. In view of the findings of study, several recommendations were made for practice and policy development. / MA (Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

School communities are supposed to be safe places for children where they can build healthy and positive relationships; protected places where children not only gain knowledge, but also learn about themselves. However, research indicates an increase in violent behaviour within school communities. The serious nature of violence in South African schools is evident in reports of physical and sexual abuse, gang-related activities and children bringing and using weapons at schools. The violence is not limited to violence between children but also involves interschool rivalries where gang conflicts have become part of the problem. Despite the measures taken by the DoE, violence in schools is still escalating and educators in some schools can spend more time on solving issues relating to violence than being involved in the process of effective teaching. Consequently violence in schools might become a threat to the provision of effective education for children. Current South African research on bullying behaviour tends to follow a linear, individualistic approach as a means to understanding the phenomenon of bullying. Research conducted within the South African context tends to focus on the individual behaviour of children involved in bullying incidents with the need to address the aggressive behaviour of the bully, the need to protect the victim and describing concerns for the bystanders. The concern of such a linear approach is that research does not place enough emphasis on the relationships of members in school communities and the contexts in which bullying behaviour occurs. To address this gap in the knowledge regarding our understanding of bullying behaviour from a relational perspective, the researcher explored the relational experiences of secondary school children who were involved in bullying incidents in three secondary school communities in South Africa. A systemic developmental approach developed by Cairns and Cairns (1991) and adopted by Atlas and Pepler (1998) as well as a complex interactive dynamics systems approach informed this study. The purpose of this study is to contribute to efforts to find solutions to the escalation of bullying behaviour by exploring the relational experiences of children who were involved in bullying incidents in the context of secondary school communities in South Africa. It is anticipated that an exploration of the relational experiences of these children might facilitate a deeper understanding of the dynamics that emerge in the interactions between the various members in school communities and an understanding of how these interactions contribute toward the escalation in bullying behaviour. In order to obtain a deeper understanding regarding the phenomenon of bullying, a qualitative phenomenological study was conducted to explore the relational experiences of children involved in bullying incidents within three secondary school communities. Within the first phase of data collection thirty three participants (between grade 8-11), who were purposely selected, completed a written assignment. The written assignment included a short essay based on their experience of a bullying incident and twenty incomplete sentences that were open-ended in nature. In the second phase of data collection the researcher conducted semi- structured interviews with six of the participants who participated in the first phase of data collection. The semi-structured interviews allowed the researcher to ask further questions to obtain a deeper understanding regarding their relational experiences of bullying incidents in their school community. Based on the responses of the participants, three themes were identified: (1) Relational experiences of interactions between teachers and children based on the experiences of children where they spoke about interactions that suggested reciprocal disrespect between children and teachers, incongruence between teachers and learners, teachers attempting to control the behaviour of children and lack of interest displayed in children by their teachers; (2) Relational experiences of interactions between children that included subthemes of assertion of power to obtain status amongst peers, exclusion based on group membership, competiveness amongst groups and violating the trust of friends; (3) Relational experiences of interactions in conflict situations where participants described their bullying experiences and suggested that teachers display apathy in these forms of conflict situations. The participants also reported that children tend to instigate and reinforce conflict. Learners also often choose to remain silent out of fear for retaliation and that teacher-parent disputes exist regarding the managing of conflict situations between children. The relational experiences of the children assisted to inform our understanding of the interactive dynamics that underpin bullying behaviour. In view of the findings of the study, recommendations are made for practice, policy development and suggestions for future research are also offered. / MA (Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Conduct an exploratory study on operationally focussed managers within a South African company, using both quantitative and qualitative analysis, to determine the correlation between the required and actual levels of complexity and time-span of control at specific hierarchical levels / Organisational design needs to be in line with capabilities of the individual-inrole. The structure of an organization directly impacts the overall effectiveness and ultimately the success of such an organization and the number of layers required in any given hierarchy is a product of the organization’s mission (Jaques, 1989). Stratified Systems Theory (Jaques, 1989) defines work in seven strata based on a basis of decision-making complexity. The research presented here identifies a specific organisation’s current level of work based on complexity and the time-span of decision-making. Research was done in one specific geographical region of a company operating in the Supply Chain and Logistics industry in South Africa. Qualitative data collection was done by means of interviews with a defined sample group that provided an adequate cross-section of the main functions of the business, however, the sampling technique used may not provide results representative of the entire population. ii The Brunel Institute for Organisation and Social Studies’ (BIOSS) Matrix of Working Relationships was used as main basis for reporting results. The research indicates that the organisation is presently, according to Jaques Stratified Systems Theory (Jaques, 1989), operating at one level below their intended level that will allow them to effectively meet their longterm strategic objectives. The report identifies shortcomings in terms of the current capabilities of the individual-in-role and the actual work requirements, setting a foundation for further analysis of individual capabilities for effective organisational design. / Graduate School of Business Leadership / MBL

Multiple-choice questions are acknowledged to be difficult for both English mother-tongue and second-language university students to interpret and answer. In a context in which university tuition policies are demanding explicitly that assessments need to be designed and administered in such a way that no students are disadvantaged by the assessment process, the thesis explores the fairness of multiple-choice questions as a way of testing second-language students in South Africa. It explores the extent to which two multiple-choice Linguistics examinations at Unisa are in fact ‘generally accessible’ to second-language students, focusing on what kinds of multiple-choice questions present particular problems for second-language speakers and what contribution linguistic factors make to these difficulties. Statistical analysis of the examination results of two classes of students writing multiple-choice exams in first-year Linguistics is coupled with a linguistic analysis of the examination papers to establish the readability level of each question and whether the questions adhered to eight item-writing guidelines relating to maximising readability and avoiding negatives, long items, incomplete sentence stems, similar answer choices, grammatically non-parallel answer choices, ‘All-of-the-above’ and ‘None-of-the-above’ items. Correlations are sought between question difficulty and aspects of the language of these questions and an attempt is made to investigate the respective contributions of cognitive difficulty and linguistic difficulty on student performance. To complement the quantitative portion of the study, a think-aloud protocol was conducted with 13 students in an attempt to gain insight into the problems experienced by individual students in reading, understanding and answering multiple-choice questions. The consolidated quantitative and qualitative findings indicate that among the linguistic aspects of questions that contributed to question difficulty for second language speakers was a high density of academic words, long items and negative stems. These sources of difficulty should be addressed as far as possible during item-writing and editorial review of questions.