Previous research has observed that approach motivation can both increase and decrease attentional breadth. How does the same motivation have these seemingly divergent effects? Three studies tested the hypothesis that mental construal levels help to determine the breadth of approach-motivated attention. In all studies, construal levels were manipulated to be high or low and breadth of attention was assessed in the context of high approach motivation. Study 1 found that higher trait approach motivation predicts increased attentional breadth, but only following the induction of a high-level (versus low-level) mental construals. Study 2 found that, while viewing images of appetitive objects (i.e., desserts), high-level construals increased attentional breadth relative to low-level construals. Study 3, however, found little evidence that high (versus low) construal levels influenced attentional breadth while viewing images of appetitive or neutral objects. These results help to reconcile divergent past findings regarding approach motivation and breadth of attention, but the results fall short of providing definitive evidence for the hypothesized role of mental construal levels in approach-motivated attentional breadth.

People usually have favorable evaluations when incoming information matches with their self view, which has been evidenced in cross-cultural research on advertisement appeals. However, the current paper demonstrates a counterintuitive finding in a retailing context. Results show that when an interdependent self-construal is made salient situationally, individually focused persuasion attempts (i.e. uniqueness) have a more positive impact on consumers’ trustworthiness toward the salesclerk and need for uniqueness than interpersonally focused persuasion attempts (i.e. connectedness). However, when an independent self-construal is activated situationally, persuasion attempts used by a salesclerk have no influence on consumers’ perceptions of trustworthiness toward the salesclerk and need for uniqueness. Five studies are presented that test these propositions and investigate their underlying processes. Study 1 conducted in Canada supported the hypothesized effects. Study 2 provided evidence for the robustness of the effect observed in Study 1 by conducting a similar experiment in China. Study 3, a field study, further supported the propositions when measuring self-construal as an individual difference. Study 4 provided support for the proposed underlying mechanism. That is, the observed effect in Study 1, 2 & 3 is due to persuasion knowledge through deliberate processing. Study 5 extended this result by recruiting participants from four different countries (France, Canada, China, and Israel).

People usually have favorable evaluations when incoming information matches with their self view, which has been evidenced in cross-cultural research on advertisement appeals. However, the current paper demonstrates a counterintuitive finding in a retailing context. Results show that when an interdependent self-construal is made salient situationally, individually focused persuasion attempts (i.e. uniqueness) have a more positive impact on consumers’ trustworthiness toward the salesclerk and need for uniqueness than interpersonally focused persuasion attempts (i.e. connectedness). However, when an independent self-construal is activated situationally, persuasion attempts used by a salesclerk have no influence on consumers’ perceptions of trustworthiness toward the salesclerk and need for uniqueness. Five studies are presented that test these propositions and investigate their underlying processes. Study 1 conducted in Canada supported the hypothesized effects. Study 2 provided evidence for the robustness of the effect observed in Study 1 by conducting a similar experiment in China. Study 3, a field study, further supported the propositions when measuring self-construal as an individual difference. Study 4 provided support for the proposed underlying mechanism. That is, the observed effect in Study 1, 2 & 3 is due to persuasion knowledge through deliberate processing. Study 5 extended this result by recruiting participants from four different countries (France, Canada, China, and Israel).

A cross-cultural survey study examined the impact of adult attachment and self-construal on relationship and mental health outcomes in Hong Kong, Mexico, and the United States. Approximately 200 university students (each currently involved in a romantic relationship) from each culture were recruited to participate. Participants completed self-report measures of adult attachment style, self-construal and several questionnaires about their romantic relationships. The dependent measures examined were relationship satisfaction, commitment, and perceived social support, along with the mental health variable of depressive symptoms. Both universal and culture-specific patterns of adult attachment were observed. Attachment insecurity was negatively related to relationship and mental health outcomes in all cultures under study, providing support for a universal interpretation of attachment theory. However, the negative effects of avoidant attachment on relationship outcomes were found to be stronger in Hong Kong and in Mexico. These findings provide support for a degree of cultural specificity to attachment processes. Additional findings centered on self-construal, and showed that independent self-construal was particularly detrimental to relationship outcomes in Hong Kong. Implications for attachment theory and self-construal research are discussed.

In the present research, I examine whether independent and interdependent self-construals influence behaviour toward innocent others following unfair treatment from an authority. Fairness researchers have documented many negative effects of unfair treatment on recipients’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. From the recipient’s perspective, unfair treatment is a sign that the recipient is inferior and unworthy of respect, leading to decreased self-esteem (e.g., Tyler, Degoey, & Smith, 1996). Although this decrease in self-esteem among recipients of unfair treatment may be universal, individual differences in behavioural reactions to unfairness are evident. Prior research and theory suggest that the need to maintain one’s self-esteem is fundamental (e.g., Maslow, 1968; Rogers, 1961; Rosenberg, 1979), and that individuals engage in a wide range of behaviours to maintain their self-esteem (Steele, 1988). Recent research suggests that the types of behaviours individuals use to restore their self-esteem following unfairness vary according to the source of their self-esteem. Specifically, individuals with a stronger independent self-construal, who derive self-esteem from being unique and getting ahead, may be more likely to enact revenge against those who treat them unfairly (Zdaniuk & Bobocel, 2009). Conversely, those with a stronger interdependent self-construal, who derive self-esteem from maintaining harmonious relationships, may be more likely to forgive (Bobocel & Zdaniuk, 2009). At times, engaging in revenge or forgiveness toward the perpetrator of unfairness may be difficult, especially if the perpetrator is an authority. In these situations, recipients of unfairness may maintain their self-esteem by engaging in unfair or fair behaviours directed toward innocent others. I predicted that after experiencing unfair treatment from an authority, individuals with a strong (versus weak) independent self-construal would be more likely to act unfairly toward fellow group members, and that individuals with a strong (versus weak) interdependent self-construal would be more likely to act fairly. These predictions were tested in two laboratory studies and one field study. Although the results were not consistent across the three studies, some support was found for both predictions. In addition, the findings are consistent with the notion that self-esteem maintenance was a mechanism underlying the predicted effects of the self-construals. The implications of the current findings for the fairness literature are discussed, and directions for future research are proposed. To avoid ripple effects of unfairness in the workplace, organizational authorities are advised to promote an interdependent, rather than independent, work environment.

In the present research, I examine whether independent and interdependent self-construals influence behaviour toward innocent others following unfair treatment from an authority. Fairness researchers have documented many negative effects of unfair treatment on recipients’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. From the recipient’s perspective, unfair treatment is a sign that the recipient is inferior and unworthy of respect, leading to decreased self-esteem (e.g., Tyler, Degoey, & Smith, 1996). Although this decrease in self-esteem among recipients of unfair treatment may be universal, individual differences in behavioural reactions to unfairness are evident. Prior research and theory suggest that the need to maintain one’s self-esteem is fundamental (e.g., Maslow, 1968; Rogers, 1961; Rosenberg, 1979), and that individuals engage in a wide range of behaviours to maintain their self-esteem (Steele, 1988). Recent research suggests that the types of behaviours individuals use to restore their self-esteem following unfairness vary according to the source of their self-esteem. Specifically, individuals with a stronger independent self-construal, who derive self-esteem from being unique and getting ahead, may be more likely to enact revenge against those who treat them unfairly (Zdaniuk & Bobocel, 2009). Conversely, those with a stronger interdependent self-construal, who derive self-esteem from maintaining harmonious relationships, may be more likely to forgive (Bobocel & Zdaniuk, 2009). At times, engaging in revenge or forgiveness toward the perpetrator of unfairness may be difficult, especially if the perpetrator is an authority. In these situations, recipients of unfairness may maintain their self-esteem by engaging in unfair or fair behaviours directed toward innocent others. I predicted that after experiencing unfair treatment from an authority, individuals with a strong (versus weak) independent self-construal would be more likely to act unfairly toward fellow group members, and that individuals with a strong (versus weak) interdependent self-construal would be more likely to act fairly. These predictions were tested in two laboratory studies and one field study. Although the results were not consistent across the three studies, some support was found for both predictions. In addition, the findings are consistent with the notion that self-esteem maintenance was a mechanism underlying the predicted effects of the self-construals. The implications of the current findings for the fairness literature are discussed, and directions for future research are proposed. To avoid ripple effects of unfairness in the workplace, organizational authorities are advised to promote an interdependent, rather than independent, work environment.

People typically underestimate the time it will take them to complete tasks, even when they are familiar with the process of executing those tasks (the “planning fallacy”; Kahneman & Tversky, 1979; Buehler, Griffin & Ross, 1994). One reason that individuals may show a chronic misprediction of task completion time hinges on an incomplete conception of the steps required for task completion. Support Theory (Tversky & Koehler, 1994) suggests that “unpacking” such steps may help to attenuate the planning fallacy. Indeed, when a task is unpacked into procedural steps, people give longer task completion time estimates, and the planning fallacy is minimized (Kruger & Evans, 2004). Construal level theory (Liberman & Trope, 1998) suggests that a lower-level construal of a task (i.e., a task construed in the near-future) may also foster less optimistic predictions, akin to the underlying mechanism of unpacking a task. It is hypothesized that the effects of unpacking on task completion time will be more pronounced for near-future tasks, because the lower-level construal of such tasks emphasizes details of component steps, making them more readily available to be “unpacked” as part of the prediction process. Conversely, for distant-future events, unpacking effects should be attenuated. Further, these distance-dependent unpacking effects should depend critically on the content of steps unpacked. These hypotheses were tested in five studies. Unpacking effects on completion time estimates are attenuated for distant- relative to near-future tasks, and that this attenuation emerges as a result of an abstract conception of the steps of the task when considered in the distant future.

A cross-cultural survey study examined the impact of adult attachment and self-construal on relationship and mental health outcomes in Hong Kong, Mexico, and the United States. Approximately 200 university students (each currently involved in a romantic relationship) from each culture were recruited to participate. Participants completed self-report measures of adult attachment style, self-construal and several questionnaires about their romantic relationships. The dependent measures examined were relationship satisfaction, commitment, and perceived social support, along with the mental health variable of depressive symptoms. Both universal and culture-specific patterns of adult attachment were observed. Attachment insecurity was negatively related to relationship and mental health outcomes in all cultures under study, providing support for a universal interpretation of attachment theory. However, the negative effects of avoidant attachment on relationship outcomes were found to be stronger in Hong Kong and in Mexico. These findings provide support for a degree of cultural specificity to attachment processes. Additional findings centered on self-construal, and showed that independent self-construal was particularly detrimental to relationship outcomes in Hong Kong. Implications for attachment theory and self-construal research are discussed.

In the present research, I apply a construal level framework to understanding when people gravitate towards all-at-once (e.g., four hours in one day, $100 lump-sum) versus distributed (one hour a day for four days, $20 per month for 5 months) philanthropy. I argue that more abstract construals increase the weight that people place on idealistic concerns, whereas more concrete construals increase the weight that people place on pragmatic concerns, and that people expect allocating time and money in an all-at-once versus distributed manner to satisfy idealistic and pragmatic concerns to different degrees. Chapter 1 of this dissertation focuses specifically on volunteerism and compliance to specific requests (i.e., an all-at-once or a distributed request, but not both). Studies 1 and 2 demonstrated people expected all-at-once and distributed volunteerism to satisfy idealistic and pragmatic concerns, respectively. The final two studies in Chapter 1 showed that situationally induced differences (Study 3) and individual differences (Study 4) in construal level were associated with behavioral compliance to a volunteer request. Specifically, people who adopted a more abstract construal were more likely to comply with an all-at-once (versus distributed) request. Conversely, people who adopted a more concrete construal were more likely to comply with a distributed (versus all-at-once) volunteer request. Chapter 2 explored the role of construal level in compliance with allocated monetary requests. Study 5 demonstrated that people expect all-at-once and distributed donations to satisfy idealistic and pragmatic concerns, respectively. Study 6 demonstrated that a real-world relevant manipulation of construal level influenced behavioral compliance to a donation request. Specifically, people who were led to adopt a more abstract construal were more likely to comply with an all-at-once (versus distributed) request, whereas people who were led to adopt a more concrete construal were more likely to comply with a distributed (versus all-at-once) donation request. Study 7 provided evidence that people’s baseline preference is for all-at-once requests, highlighting the utility of a more concrete construal in increasing receptivity to distributed requests. Finally, although many organizations do not offer a distributed donation option, Study 8 showed that it does not necessarily hurt an organization to include it among the options. However, preliminary evidence is inconclusive as to whether offering distributed contribution option can increase the likelihood and amount that people donate in the long run. Chapter 3 concludes the dissertation with a discussion of the theoretical and practical implications of the findings, as well as potential future research directions. / text

People typically underestimate the time it will take them to complete tasks, even when they are familiar with the process of executing those tasks (the “planning fallacy”; Kahneman & Tversky, 1979; Buehler, Griffin & Ross, 1994). One reason that individuals may show a chronic misprediction of task completion time hinges on an incomplete conception of the steps required for task completion. Support Theory (Tversky & Koehler, 1994) suggests that “unpacking” such steps may help to attenuate the planning fallacy. Indeed, when a task is unpacked into procedural steps, people give longer task completion time estimates, and the planning fallacy is minimized (Kruger & Evans, 2004). Construal level theory (Liberman & Trope, 1998) suggests that a lower-level construal of a task (i.e., a task construed in the near-future) may also foster less optimistic predictions, akin to the underlying mechanism of unpacking a task. It is hypothesized that the effects of unpacking on task completion time will be more pronounced for near-future tasks, because the lower-level construal of such tasks emphasizes details of component steps, making them more readily available to be “unpacked” as part of the prediction process. Conversely, for distant-future events, unpacking effects should be attenuated. Further, these distance-dependent unpacking effects should depend critically on the content of steps unpacked. These hypotheses were tested in five studies. Unpacking effects on completion time estimates are attenuated for distant- relative to near-future tasks, and that this attenuation emerges as a result of an abstract conception of the steps of the task when considered in the distant future.