Executive summary This study explores the learner centred teaching practices in secondary schools in Tanzania. The basis of this research emanated from the problem of the poor performance of secondary school students in Tanzania. The performance of students in national examinations has declined over the past years. This trend shows an increase in the number of students who are failing. The analysis of the examination results indicates that several secondary schools are in a poor situation. Poor performance signifies that many students have failed to acquire the requisite knowledge, skills, and competences to function effectively in society as well as in socioeconomic development. In general, the preceding situation proves that the quality of education has been affected and there is a need for conducting research. The literature indicates that scholars have been conducting educational research to find effective methods of improving students’ performance. To accomplish this aim researchers of IEA (International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement), international organizations, and universities have been carrying out extensive studies to examine students’ performance in the areas of science, mathematics, and reading in various national and cultural contexts. Educators have produced results showing that countries such as Finland, South Korea, and Shanghai-China lead the world in terms of student performance. The factors mentioned to account for good performance include hard work by students, positive attitude of students’, effective engagement in the classrooms, schools emphasis on academic success, well-resourced schools, well-trained teachers, and favourable working conditions. In order to improve the problem of poor performance, the literature suggested researchers should mainly examine the learner centred teaching practices in the classrooms. This advice is in line with the goals of various educational programs such as World Education Forums, Tanzania Development Vision 2025, Secondary Education Development Program, and Education Sector Development Program. In addition, the process of transfer and borrowing of policies and practices from Western and European countries to different national and cultural contexts compelled the introduction of learner centred teaching practices. These practices have been supported because they put students at the center of the learning process. They focus on the interest of students and create a positive environment for learning. They facilitate active teaching and learning methods. The practices have a connection to constructivist theory which emphasizes students’ construction of meaning and understanding. The characteristics of the theory are preferred because they should improve educational research, curriculum implementation and students performance in different national and cultural contexts. Despite effectiveness of constructivist theory, educators and practitioners challenged characteristics associated with this theory. It does not provide thorough instructions on how to employ in the classrooms. It does not guide teachers on the appropriate learner centred teaching practices applied in various stages of the lesson development. It is in this background that the current study identified a research gap and area of contribution. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to explore the manner in which secondary school teachers make use of learner centred teaching practices in various stages of lesson development. Specifically, the study explored teachers’ perceptions of the learner centred teaching. It also explored the teachers’ practices and perceptions of the learner centred teaching practices in various stages of the lesson development. Likewise, the study sought to examine the kind of support teachers need to facilitate learner centered teaching practices. It should be recognized that practices and perceptions are essential for providing a thorough understanding of these practices in the classrooms. To achieve the above purpose, this study sought to answer the following research questions: 1. How do secondary school teachers in Tanzania perceive the learner centred teaching? 2. How do secondary school teachers in Tanzania employ the learner centred teaching practices in different stages of the lesson development? 3. How do secondary school teachers in Tanzania perceive the learner centred teaching practices in different stages of the lesson development? 4. What support do secondary school teachers in Tanzania need to enhance their learner centred teaching practices? Concerning the research methodology, this study consulted previous studies carried out in one country and those in various national and cultural contexts. The purpose was to examine and learn how past studies were designed, conducted, and achieved the research objectives. The researcher intended to choose the methodology that manages and controls complexities occurring during the teaching and learning in the classrooms and might affect the data collection. The methodology had to produce a thorough understanding of teachers’ practices and perceptions. This criterion compelled the study to adopt a qualitative design. Scholars insist that classroom practices be studied properly by qualitative design. This design is effective to provide an understanding of the people, contexts, practices, and interactions. This study applied the ethnographic approach to explore the learner centred teaching practices extensively and in a natural classroom setting. The ethnographic approach enabled examining cultural attributes such as practices and perceptions as manifesting in the classrooms. It facilitated the acquisition of information that produced thick descriptions of learner centred teaching practices. In sampling, this study focused to select poor-performing schools that implement learner centred teaching. Teachers were chosen purposively to provide rich information needed to fulfil the purpose of the study. The data collection was conducted between November 2014 and March 2015. Afterward, the researcher continued to capture information from teachers to enrich the database. In the period between December 2015 and January 2016, teachers were given the chance to authenticate the findings. During the fieldwork, the researcher executed a series of activities in line with ethical principles. The data collection methods applied participant observations and semi structured interviews. The data was analyzed by thematic analysis and produced findings in terms of themes. Themes have been connected to the implementation of learner centred teaching practices in the classrooms. The analysis followed steps such as organizing the data for familiarization, reading the data thoroughly, writing and coding the transcripts/texts, formulating the themes, interpreting the meaning, and doing a repetition movement between findings and the database. The main findings of the study reveal that teachers’ perceptions of learner centred teaching exhibited various views. The perceptions and practices towards the learner centred teaching in various stages of the lesson development displayed mixed practices. In this view, the findings on practices (what teachers practiced) and perceptions (what teachers reported) fall into three categories: Those aligned with the learner centred are described as discussing, demonstrating, homework, ongoing assessment, higher-order questioning, asking various questions, interactive seating arrangement, passing to groups during the discussion, teaching a small piece of content, and students presentation. Those aligned with the teacher centred are described as lecturing, reading textbooks, end of period assessment, lower-order questioning, neglecting students’ views, and traditional seating arrangement. Also, practices created by teachers include students marking for themselves, slow students acting as indicators of learning and understanding, examining notes, involving few students, performing questions on the chalkboard, watching the entire class, and remedial teaching (these were created due to various reasons). To support teachers in executing learner centred practices, improvement is needed in the aspects such as in-service training, school based training, teachers’ welfare, teaching materials, producing more science teachers, and testing students frequently. The researcher discussed findings by relating and comparing them with various research studies with reference to the implementation of learner centred teaching practices. In general, the research findings showed that teachers display similar as well as different educational practices. This study realizes the research gap and addresses theoretical and empirical contributions. Regarding theory, the literature indicated that the constructivist theory lacks clear instructions on how teachers should employ learner centred teaching practices in various stages of lesson development. This study addresses the gap by providing a broad understanding of the learner centred teaching practices applied by teachers in various stages of lesson development. To accomplish that aim, the study suggests proper constructivist and learner centred practices for guiding teachers in the classrooms (see Appendix VIII).:TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Executive summary ii-vi Zusammenfassung vii-xi Acknowledgement xii Dedication xiii List of acronyms xiv Table of contents xv-xviii List of Tables xix List of Figures xx CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the study 1 1.2 Statement of the problem 9 1.3 Purpose and research questions 10 1.4 Significance of the study 10 CHAPTER TWO: COMPARATIVE EDUCATION AND TRANSNATIONAL TRANSFER OF EDUCATIONAL POLICIES AND THE LEARNER CENTERED TEACHING PRACTICES 2.1 Introduction 13 2.2 Comparative education 13 2.3 The transnational transfer of policies and practices 17 2.4 Comparative education in Tanzania 21 2.5 Curriculum reform in Tanzania 24 2.6 The learner centred teaching practices and its empirical research in Tanzania 28 2.7 Comparative education research about the learner centred teaching 35 CHAPTER THREE: THE CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY AND THE LEARNER CENTERED TEACHING PRACTICES 3.1 Introduction 39 3.2 An overview of the teaching theory 39 3.3 The constructivist theory and its characteristics 40 3.4 Learner centered teaching practices 53 3.5 Empirical research about the learner centered teaching practices 70 3.6 Other aspects related to the implementation of the learner centered teaching practices 75 3.7 Teacher centered practices 80 3.8 Different stages of the lesson development as applied in teaching and learning practices 83 CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 4.1 Introduction 90 4.2 Overview of the background of study and the research questions and methodology 90 4.3 Research design 92 4.4 Research approach 95 4.5 Sampling methods 96 4.6 Pilot study 98 4.7 Data collection methods 100 4.8 Data analysis 107 4.9 Ethical and consent treatments 114 4.10 Quality criteria considered in this study 115 CHAPTER FIVE: FINDINGS OF THE STUDY 5.1 Introduction 118 5.2 Perceptions regarding the stages during the teaching and learning process 118 5.3 Presentation of findings that follow the stated cases 120 Teacher A 122 Teacher B 135 Teacher C 149 Teacher D 162 5.4 The learner centred teaching practices on the reflection stage 174 5.5 How students are involved in the learner centred teaching practices 178 5.6 Support to improve the learner centred teaching practices 180 CHAPTER SIX: DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS 6.1 Introduction 183 6.2 Overview of the discussion of findings 183 6.3 Perceptions regarding the learner centered teaching 184 6.4 Learner centred teaching practices employed in different stages of the lesson development ….188 6.5 Learner centred teaching practices employed in the reflection stage 203 6.6 How students are involved in the visited classrooms 205 6.7 Support to improve the learner centered teaching practices 207 CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUDING PERSPECTIVES AND RECOMMENDATIONS 7.1 Introduction 212 7.2 Concluding perspectives 212 7.3 Limitations of the study 217 7.4 Recommendations 219 References 221 Appendix I: Classroom observation schedule 248 Appendix II: Semi structured interview for teachers 257 Appendix III: Permission letter from regional education officer 273 Appendix IV: Consent letter from teacher A 274 Appendix V: Consent letter from teacher B 274 Appendix VI: Consent letter from teacher C 275 Appendix VII: Consent letter from teacher D 275 Appendix VIII: Guidelines to consider for preparing, executing and assessing the learner centered teaching practices 276 Schriftliche Erklärung 277

In The gendered Human Being. Gender Difference from the Perspective of Helmuth Plessner's Philosophical Anthropology, gender difference in the two-gender model is examined from the perspective of philosophical anthropology. For this purpose, three social constructivist theories of gender difference are brought into conversation with each other under the prism of lived body-body-person. In this way, the work aims to catch a glimpse of the gendered human being in all the spheres that open up their world. Key words: Helmuth Plessner, Philosophical Anthropology, anthropology, gender difference, gender studies, philosophy of the twentieth century, phenomenology, social philosophy, Judith Butler, Doing Gender, theory of interaction, constructivism