Les glissements de terrains sous-marins, même de petite taille, représentent un risque majeur d’érosion littorale et de submersion marine lorsqu’ils sont déclenchés à proximité des côtes. Ce fut le cas à Nice (France) avec l’effondrement en mer d’une partie de la plateforme aéroportuaire, suivit d’un tsunami du fait d’un glissement sous-marin en octobre 1979. Du fait que la pente continentale niçoise soit abrupte, à proximité des côtes et soumise à une activité sismique modérée, elle constitue un véritable laboratoire naturel pour l’étude des glissements sous-marins de petite échelle. Ce travail repose sur une approche multidisciplinaire permettant une étude globale des processus de glissement dans la zone proximale. Il intègre des données issues de la géophysique marine, de la sédimentologie de la géotechnique et une phase préliminaire de modélisation numérique. Pour la première fois, la morphologie ainsi que l’architecture des dépôts du delta du Var ont été investigués à partir de données de très haute résolution. Elles ont permis d’identifier la signature de nombreux processus gravitaires de petite taille en surface (morphologie / taille / répartition spatiale) ainsi que leur imbrication en profondeur. Dans le cas du glissement de 1979, des éléments encore inconnus ont été identifiés tels que : 1) ses cicatrices Est et Ouest ; 2) des blocs et paquets glissés non évacués ; 3) la surface de glissement en profondeur ; 4) l’estimation d’un volume total déplacé différent du volume de sédiments évacués. Les carottes sédimentaires ont ensuite permis de discuter de la répartition en zone proximale des dépôts/érosion et de l’enregistrement de paléoglissement à partir de l’état de surconsolidation des dépôts. L’activité des glissements a été estimée dans le temps. Les plus grands glissements (V > 106 m3) ont des fréquences estimées ~50 ans, les glissements de taille moyenne (105 < V < 106 m3) autour de 3 à 25 ans, et les nombreux petits glissements (V < 105 m3) tous les 1-2 mois à 5 ans au cours des périodes actives des 50 dernières années. Ces glissements sont enregistrés dès la zone proximale à des fréquences de 3-7 ans au cours des périodes de plus forte activité depuis 400 ans. L’évolution de la morphologie suit des cycles successifs de déclenchement/quiescence/rechargement. À l’échelle de temps humaine deux cycles s’étendent de 1967-1999 et de 1999-2011 ; les ruptures se regroupent en cluster de 5-10 ans. À l’échelle pluriséculaire, les clusters de turbidites durent 20-40 ans et les périodes de quiescence ~100 ans. Enfin, cette étude apporte de nouvelles contraintes à propos des facteurs déclenchants ou préconditionnants agissant sur le delta du Var. L’état de stabilité de la zone semble être fortement préconditionné par la complexité de la topographie, l’état de consolidation des sédiments et l’importance des apports sédimentaires du Var. L’architecture des dépôts semble principalement contraindre la profondeur des instabilités. Parmi les forçages externes connus sur la zone, nous avons cartographié l’extension de la zone riche en gaz ainsi que des panaches de fluides dans la colonne d’eau. Notre analyse montre que l’amplitude des précipitations, des crues et du niveau de la nappe alluviale seraient trop faibles au cours des 50 dernières années pour agir en tant que facteur déclenchant de manière isolée. Afin de déstabiliser les pentes, ces forçages semblent devoir être couplés entre eux ou associés à l’action de séismes. Les analyses des bases de données en lien avec l’activité des glissements ainsi que les tests numériques permettent de suggérer que la sismicité régionale et que les séismes historiques sont soit 1) de magnitude trop faible, soit 2) à de trop grandes distances des zones de déclenchement, pour générer des PGA assez fort (0,2 g) et avoir individuellement un impact sur les pentes du Delta. / Small submarine landslides, when triggered near the coast represent a major coastal hazard due to erosion of the coastline and marine submersion. In October 1979, a submarine landslide generated a part of the airport platform of Nice (France) to collapse at sea and provoked a tsunami. Because the continental slope off this region is abrupt, close to the coast and subject to moderate seismic activity it is a natural laboratory to study small-scale submarine mass movements processes. This work is based on a multidisciplinary approach allowing a global study of landslide processes in the source area. It integrates data from marine geophysics, sedimentology, geotechnics and numerical modelling. For the first time morphology and architecture of the Var delta deposits are investigated using very high resolution data. It allows identification of numerous small-size gravitational processes signatures as well as their embedding at depth. In the case of the 1979 landslide previously unknown features are identified: 1) eastern and western scars, 2) in-situ blocks and lateral spreading’s traces, 3) in-depth sliding surface, 4) estimation of a total displaced volume, which is different from the evacuated sediment volume. The sedimentary cores are then used to discuss the proximal distribution of deposits, erosion and paleo-landslides records from the deposits overconsolidation. The landslide activity has been estimated over time in terms of return frequencies. The largest landslides (>106 m3) have return frequencies nearing 50 years; the medium-size landslides (105 > V > 106 m3) between 3 and 25 years; and the numerous small landslides (<105 m3) every 1-2 months to 5 years during the most active periods in the last 50 years. Landslides deposits recorded in the source area show return frequencies of 3-7 years during periods of greater activity over the last 400 years. The morphology’s evolution follows successive cycles of sliding/quiescence/reloading. In recent times, two main cycles can be observed (from 1967 to 1999 and from 1999 to 2011) during which triggering are clustered in 5-10 years. On a longer time scale, the turbidites clusters span 20-40 years and quiescence periods ~100 years. Finally, this study brings new constraints on preconditioning and triggering factors acting on the Var delta. The stability of the area seems to be strongly conditioned by the complexity of the topography, the sediments consolidation and the quantity of sediments brought by the Var river. The deposits architecture mainly constrains the depth of the instabilities. Among the external drivers known in the area the extension of the gas-rich zone as well as fluids plumes in the water column have been considered and mapped. Looking at other external drivers, the analysis shows that the magnitude of rainfall and floods, and the alluvial water level would be too low over the past 50 years to act as an isolated triggering factor. In order to destabilize slopes, these external drivers need to be tackled together or associated to earthquakes. Relationships between databases analyses, landslides activity and numerical tests suggest that regional seismicity and historical earthquakes are either too small or too distant from the source areas to generate sufficient peak ground acceleration (0.2 g) and to have an individual impact on the delta slopes.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) provides an opportunity for qualifying coastal signatory states to claim extended maritime estate. The opportunity to claim rests on the precept that in certain cases a continental shelf extends beyond the traditionally demarcated two hundred nautical mile (200M) Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) mark. In these cases a successful claim results in states having sovereign rights to the living and non-living resources of the seabed and subsoil, as well as the sedentary species, of the area claimed. Where the continental shelf extends beyond the 200M mark, the Foot of the Continental Slope (FoS) has to be determined as one of the qualifying criteria. Article 76 of UNCLOS de nes the FoS as ". . . the point of maximum change in the gradient at its base." Currently Caris Lots is the most widely used software which incorporates public domain data to determine the FoS as a step towards defining the offshore extent of an extended continental shelf. In this software, existing methods to compute the FoS are often subjective, typically involving an operator choosing the best perceived foot point during consideration of a two dimensional profile of the continental slope. These foot points are then joined by straight lines to form the foot line to be used in the desk top study (feasibility study). The purpose of this thesis is to establish a semi-automated and mathematically based three dimensional method for determination of the FoS using South African data as a case study. Firstly, a general background of UNCLOS is given (with emphasis on Article 76), including a brief discussion of the geological factors that influence the characteristics of a continental shelf and thus factors that could influence the determination of the FoS. Secondly, a mathematical method for determination of the surfaces of extremal curvature (on three dimensional data), originally proposed by Vanicek and Ou in 1994, is detailed and applied to two smooth, hypothetical sample surfaces. A discussion of the bathymetric data to be used for application introduces the factors to be taken into account when using extensive survey data as well as methods to process the raw data for use. The method is then applied to two sets of gridded bathymetric data of differing resolution for four separate regions around the South African coast. The ridges formed on the resulting surfaces of maximum curvature are then traced in order to obtain a foot line definition for each region and each resolution. The results obtained from application of the method are compared with example foot points provided by the subjective two dimensional method of computation within the Caris Lots software suite. A comparison of the results for the different resolutions of data is included to provide insight as to the effectiveness of the method with differing spatial coarseness of data. Finally, an indication of further work is provided in the conclusion to this thesis, in the form of a number of recommendations for possible adaptations of the mathematical and tracing methods, and improvements thereof. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Verenigde Nasies se Konvensie oor die Wet van die See (UNCLOS) bied 'n geleentheid aan kwalifiserende state wat ondertekenaars van die Konvensie is om aanspraak te maak op uitgebreide maritieme gebied. Die geleentheid om op uitgebreide gebied aanspraak te maak berus op die veronderstelling dat 'n kontinentale tafel in sekere gevalle tot buite die tradisioneel afgebakende 200 seemyl eksklusiewe ekonomiese zone (EEZ) strek. In sulke gevalle het 'n suksesvolle aanspraak die gevolg dat die staat soewereine reg oor die lewende en nie-lewende bronne van die seevloer en ondergrond verkry, sowel as die inwonende spesies van die gebied buite die EEZ waarop aanspraak gemaak word. Die voet van die kontinentale tafel (FoS) moet vasgestel word as een van die bepalende kriteria vir afbakening van die aanspraak waar die kontinentale tafel tot buite die EEZ strek. Artikel 76 van UNCLOS defineer die FoS as ". . . die punt van maksimale verandering in die helling by sy basis." Die mees algemeen gebruikte rekenaar sagteware wat openbare domein data aanwend om die voet van die helling te bepaal, is tans "Caris Lots." Die metodes wat in die program gebruik word om die voet van die helling te bepaal, is dikwels subjektief en berus tipies op 'n operateur se keuse van die beste afgeskatte punt van die voet van die helling uit 'n oorweging van 'n twee dimensionele profiel van die kontinentale tafel. Die berekende voet-punte word dan deur middel van reguit lyne verbind om 'n hellingsvoetlyn te vorm. Hierdie voetlyn kan dan in die Suid-Afrikaanse lessenaarstudie (doenlikheidstudie) oor die bepaling van die voet van die kontinentale tafel gebruik word. Die doel van hierdie verhandeling is om 'n semi-outomatiese en wiskundig gebaseerde drie-dimensionele metode te beskryf vir die vasstelling van die FoS, deur as 'n gevallestudie van Suid-Afrikaanse data gebruik te maak. 'n Algemene agtergrond van UNCLOS, met beklemtoning van Artikel 76, word eerstens gegee. 'n Kort bespreking van die geologiese faktore wat die kontinentale tafel beïnvloed en wat gevolglik 'n invloed kan hê op die vasstelling van die voet van die helling, is ingesluit. Tweedens word 'n wiskundige metode, wat oorspronklik in 1994 deur Vanicek en Ou voorgestel is, vir bepaling van die oppervlaktes van maksimale kromming (gebaseer op drie-dimensionele data) in detail bespreek en 'n voorbeeld van 'n toepassing op twee gladde, denkbeeldige oppervaktes word beskryf. Die faktore wat in ag geneem moet word wanneer omvattende dieptemeting data gebruik word, en die metodes wat gebruik word om die rou data te verwerk, word ingelei deur 'n bespreking van die aard van die dieptemeting data wat gebruik is. Die metode word dan toegepas op twee stelle geruite dieptemeting data van verskillende resolusies vir vier afsonderlike streke om die Suid-Afrikaanse kus. Die riwwe wat op die resulterende oppervlaktes van maksimale kromming gevorm word, word dan nagetrek ten einde 'n lyndefinisie van die voet van die kontinentale tafel vir elke streek teen elke resolusie te bepaal. Die resultate verkry uit toepassings van die metode word vergelyk met hellingsvoetpunte soos bepaal deur die subjektiewe twee dimensionele berekeningsmetode in die "Caris Lots" rekenaar-program. 'n Vergelyking van die resultate vir die verskillende data resolusies word ingesluit om die doeltreffendheid van die metode met betrekking tot die hantering van verskillende ruimtelike data resolusies te ondersoek. 'n Aanduiding van verdere werk, bestaande uit 'n aantal aanbevelings vir moontlike aanpassings en verbeterings van die wiskundige en natrek metodes, word ten slotte in die gevolgtrekking van die verhandeling verskaf.

In this study 18 sediment samples were collected from the upper continental slope across the coast of the state of Sergipe in January 2007. The composition and distribution pattern of recent foraminifera were studied. For each sample, 300 foraminifera shells were identified, reaching 5400 different specimens. The samples were treated initially with the division by quartering, washed with water, weighed to 1 g and finally screened. The study shows 4504 specimens from benthic and 896 planktonic foraminifera. A total of 167 taxa were identified, with 84 genera and 157 benthic taxa. The benthic species most frequent were Amphistegina sp, Cassidulina laevigata, Siphonina pulchra and Peneroplis carinatus. Benthic and planktonic foraminifera appeared in all samples. For seven genera of planktonic foraminifera, an amount of 10 species could be identified. Planktonic species most frequent were Globigerinoides conglobatus, G. ruber, G. trilobus, Globorotalia menardii e Globigerina bulloides. The 18 sampling sites in the study area are predominantly located in bioclastic environments, except for two points that are located near of the São Francisco canyon, which is a siliciclastic environment. These results are completely new and they will allow extending the composition of foraminifera that occur along the studied area. The data are consistent with those found by other authors in different regions of the northeastern Brazilian coast. Taxonomic changes observed on this study at the generic and specific level of the studied foraminifera agree with literature data. / Neste trabalho foram analisadas 18 amostras de sedimento provenientes do talude continental superior do Estado de Sergipe, coletadas em janeiro de 2007. Os objetivos do trabalho foram analisar a composição e o padrão de distribuição dos foraminíferos recentes ao longo do talude continental superior de Sergipe e correlacioná-los aos fatores abióticos, como granulometria, teor de matéria orgânica e carbonato de cálcio. Foram triadas 300 carapaças de foraminíferos de cada amostra, totalizando 5400 exemplares. As amostras de sedimento foram quarteadas, em seguida foram lavadas, pesadas (1g de sedimento) e triadas para análise dos foraminíferos. Foram identificados 4.504 exemplares de foraminíferos bentônicos e 896 exemplares de planctônicos, com um total de 167 táxons. Tanto os foraminíferos bentônicos quanto os planctônicos estiveram presentes em todas as amostras analisadas. Foram identificados 84 gêneros de foraminíferos bentônicos representados por 157 táxons. Os bentônicos que apresentaram maior frequência relativa foram Amphistegina sp, Cassidulina laevigata, Siphonina pulchra e Peneroplis carinatus. Em relação aos planctônicos foram identificados sete gêneros representados por 10 espécies. As espécies planctônicas com maior frequência foram Globigerinoides conglobatus, G. ruber, G. trilobus, Globorotalia menardii e Globigerina bulloides. Os 18 pontos de amostragem da área de estudo estão predominantemente localizados em ambientes bioclásticos, com exceção de dois pontos que estão localizados próximos ao canyon do rio São Francisco, que é um ambiente siliciclástico. Em relação ao índice de equitatividade, os táxons identificados em cada uma das amostras apresentam uma tendência à homogeneidade nas 18 amostras. Os resultados obtidos trazem o conhecimento inédito sobre a composição dos foraminíferos que ocorrem ao longo do talude continental superior da costa do Estado de Sergipe. Os dados são compatíveis aos encontrados por outros autores em diferentes regiões da costa do nordeste brasileiro. Foi possível revisar, a partir de diversas literaturas, algumas mudanças taxonômicas dos foraminíferos a nível genérico e específico.

The steep forearc slope along the northern sector of the obliquely convergent Hikurangi subduction zone is characteristic of non-accretionary and tectonically eroding continental margins, with reduced sediment supply in the trench relative to further south, and the presence of seamount relief on the Hikurangi Plateau. These seamounts influence the subduction process and the structurally-driven geomorphic development of the over-riding margin of the Australian Plate frontal wedge. The Poverty Indentation represents an unusual, especially challenging and therefore exciting location to investigate the tectonic and eustatic effects on this sedimentary system because of: (i) the geometry and obliquity of the subducting seamounts; (ii) the influence of multiple repeated seamount impacts; (iii) the effects of structurally-driven over-steeping and associated widespread occurrence of gravitational collapse and mass movements; and (iv) the development of a large canyon system down the axis of the indentation. High quality bathymetric and backscatter images of the Poverty Indentation submarine re-entrant across the northern part of the Hikurangi margin were obtained by scientists from the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA) (Lewis, 2001) using a SIMRAD EM300 multibeam swath-mapping system, hull-mounted on NIWA’s research vessel Tangaroa. The entire accretionary slope of the re-entrant was mapped, at depths ranging from 100 to 3500 metres. The level of seafloor morphologic resolution is comparable with some of the most detailed Digital Elevation Maps (DEM) onshore. The detailed digital swath images are complemented by the availability of excellent high-quality processed multi-channel seismic reflection data, single channel high-resolution 3.5 kHz seismic reflection data, as well as core samples. Combined, these data support this study of the complex interactions of tectonic deformation with slope sedimentary processes and slope submarine geomorphic evolution at a convergent margin. The origin of the Poverty Indentation, on the inboard trench-slope at the transition from the northern to central sectors of the Hikurangi margin, is attributed to multiple seamount impacts over the last c. 2 Myr period. This has been accompanied by canyon incision, thrust fault propagation into the trench fill, and numerous large-scale gravitational collapse structures with multiple debris flow and avalanche deposits ranging in down-slope length from a few hundred metres to more than 40 km. The indentation is directly offshore of the Waipaoa River which is currently estimated to have a high sediment yield into the marine system. The indentation is recognised as the “Sink” for sediments derived from the Waipaoa River catchment, one of two target river systems chosen for the US National Science Foundation (NSF)-funded MARGINS “Source-to-Sink” initiative. The Poverty Canyon stretches 70 km from the continental shelf edge directly offshore from the Waipaoa to the trench floor, incising into the axis of the indentation. The sediment delivered to the margin from the Waipaoa catchment and elsewhere during sea-level high-stands, including the Holocene, has remained largely trapped in a large depocentre on the Poverty shelf, while during low-stand cycles, sediment bypassed the shelf to develop a prograding clinoform sequence out onto the upper slope. The formation of the indentation and the development of the upper branches of the Poverty Canyon system have led to the progressive removal of a substantial part of this prograding wedge by mass movements and gully incision. Sediment has also accumulated in the head of the Poverty Canyon and episodic mass flows contribute significantly to continued modification of the indentation by driving canyon incision and triggering instability in the adjacent slopes. Prograding clinoforms lying seaward of active faults beneath the shelf, and overlying a buried inactive thrust system beneath the upper slope, reveal a history of deformation accompanied by the creation of accommodation space. There is some more recent activity on shelf faults (i.e. Lachlan Fault) and at the transition into the lower margin, but reduced (~2 %) or no evidence of recent deformation for the majority of the upper to mid-slope. This is in contrast to current activity (approximately 24 to 47% shortening) across the lower slope and frontal wedge regions of the indentation. The middle to lower Poverty Canyon represents a structural transition zone within the indentation coincident with the indentation axis. The lower to mid-slope south of the canyon conforms more closely to a classic accretionary slope deformation style with a series of east-facing thrust-propagated asymmetric anticlines separated by early-stage slope basins. North of the canyon system, sediment starvation and seamount impact has resulted in frontal tectonic erosion associated with the development of an over-steepened lower to mid-slope margin, fault reactivation and structural inversion and over-printing. Evidence points to at least three main seamount subduction events within the Poverty Indentation, each with different margin responses: i) older substantial seamount impact that drove the first-order perturbation in the margin, since approximately ~1-2 Ma ii) subducted seamount(s) now beneath Pantin and Paritu Ridge complexes, initially impacting on the margin approximately ~0.5 Ma, and iii) incipient seamount subduction of the Puke Seamount at the current deformation front. The overall geometry and geomorphology of the wider indentation appears to conform to the geometry accompanying the structure observed in sandbox models after the seamount has passed completely through the deformation front. The main morphological features correlating with sandbox models include: i) the axial re-entrant down which the Poverty Canyon now incises; ii) the re-establishment of an accretionary wedge to the south of the indentation axis, accompanied by out-stepping, deformation front propagation into the trench fill sequence, particularly towards the mouth of the canyon; iii) the linear north margin of the indentation with respect to the more arcuate shape of the southern accretionary wedge; and, iv) the set of faults cutting obliquely across the deformation front near the mouth of the canyon. Many of the observed structural and geomorphic features of the Poverty Indentation also correlate well both with other sediment-rich convergent margins where seamount subduction is prevalent particularly the Nankai and Sumatra margins, and the sediment-starved Costa Rican margin. While submarine canyon systems are certainly present on other convergent margins undergoing seamount subduction there appears to be no other documented shelf to trench extending canyon system developing in the axis of such a re-entrant, as is dominating the Poverty Indentation. Ongoing modification of the Indentation appears to be driven by: i) continued smaller seamount impacts at the deformation front, and currently subducting beneath the mid-lower slope, ii) low and high sea-level stands accompanied by variations on sediment flux from the continental shelf, iii) over-steepening of the deformation front and mass movement, particularly from the shelf edge and upper slope.