Na presente dissertação eu estudei a distribuição potencial dos corais de águas profundas ao longo da margem continental brasileira e o efeito da resolução das variáveis ambientais em modelos de adequabilidade de habitat (MAH). Primeiramente foi determinada a distribuição potencial de corais de águas profundas a partir de modelos de adequabilidade de habitat de máxima entropia (MaxEnt). Os modelos foram alimentados com diversas camadas de dados SIG de variáveis ambientais e dados de ocorrência de espécies extraídos de bancos de dados e de novos registros. Foram estudados os grupos Scleractinia e Octocorallia, assim como quatro espécies de corais formadores de recifes (Solenosmilia variabilis, Lophelia pertusa, Madrepora oculata e Enallopsammia rostrata) e duas espécies de escleractínios não formadores de recifes (Cladocora debilis e Deltocyathus spp.). O nicho ambiental ocupado pelos táxons foi representado a partir de uma análise multivariada, sendo determinada a sobreposição entre os nichos. A partir disso foi avaliada a similaridade e equivalência de nicho ambiental entre as espécies. Os modelos resultantes indicaram que Scleractinia apresenta distribuição potencial na margem continental leste e sudeste do Brasil (porção Central e Sul), enquanto que Octocorallia apresenta uma distribuição potencial mais ampla abarcando toda a margem continental brasileira, com maior adequabilidade nas margens norte e nordeste. Assim, as áreas de distribuição potencial compartilhada entre octocorais e escleractínios foram aquelas ao largo da porção leste e sudeste do Brasil, sendo estas prioritárias para futuras pesquisas. Os nichos ambientais específicos indicaram menos tolerância de Scleractinia a altas temperaturas em comparação com Octocorallia. Os octocorais ocuparam uma maior amplitude do gradiente ambiental, principalmente relacionado às condições de carbono orgânico particulado, oxigênio dissolvido e temperatura. Isto possivelmente permite aos octocorais habitar a porção norte da margem continental brasileira, onde os modelos de escleractínios indicaram baixa adequabilidade de habitat. A margem continental sudeste do Brasil teve a maior adequabilidade para as espécies de escleractínios formadores de recifes profundos. Isto é de grande valor para planos de conservação nesta área que atualmente apresenta atividades de extração de óleo e gás e que, futuramente, pode ser explotada para a extração de minério. Além disso, as espécies formadoras de recifes ocuparam nichos ambientais similares e, portanto, mudanças nas condições ambientais, como por exemplo as associadas às mudanças climáticas, podem afetar todas elas. Contudo, seus nichos não são equivalentes e, portanto, cada uma delas faz um uso diferente do espaço ambiental da margem continental brasileira. Por último, foram desenvolvidos modelos MaxEnt para Solenosmilia variabilis, Lophelia pertusa, Madrepora oculata e Enallopsammia rostrata em duas resoluções de análise, uma de baixa (i.e., com um tamanho de pixel de aproximadamente 1000 m2) e uma de alta resolução (i.e., pixel de aproximadamente 100 m2) para determinar o efeito da resolução das variáveis ambientais utilizadas na performance e na extensão de área predita de modelos de adequabilidade de habitat. A diferença na extensão da área adequada predita por ambas resoluções foi medida de acordo a três limiares de corte diferentes. Os resultados indicaram diferenças na performance dependendo da resolução, com maior performance nos modelos de alta resolução. Além disso, a extensão de área adequada predita foi geralmente maior nos modelos de baixa resolução, com algumas exceções dependendo da espécie e do limiar de corte. Estes resultados ressaltam a importância da resolução das variáveis ambientais e suas implicações no uso de MAH no planejamento e manejo de Áreas Marinhas Protegidas (MPAs). / In this thesis I studied the deep-sea coral distribution along the Southwestern Atlantic Ocean and the effect of the environmental variables resolution on habitat suitability models (HSM). In the second chapter, I developed HSM based on the Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) algorithm to identify the potential distribution of deep-water corals. To perform the models, I have used species presence data from existing datasets together with new species records and global environmental variables. I used the main environmental variables to identify suitable areas by modeling niches of different coral taxa. The studied taxa were Scleractinia and Octocorallia, as well as four reef-forming scleractinian species (Solenosmilia variabilis, Lophelia pertusa, Madrepora oculata and Enallopsammia rostrata), and two non-reef-building scleractinians (Cladocora debilis and Deltocyathus spp.). Furthermore, I used multivariate approach to compare their environmental occupied niche in order to assess the spatial niche overlap and test niche similarity and equivalence. The resulting cold-water coral models showed that the most suitable areas occur along the west and southwestern continental margin of Brazil, which permitted to determine areas of priority for future exploration/research to determine conservation areas. Specific environmental niches suggested lower tolerance to high temperatures for Scleractinia than for Octocorallia. Besides, octocorals occupied a wider range of the environmental gradient, which was mainly related to particulate organic carbon, oxygen and temperature. This probably enables them to inhabit the northern part of Brazil where scleratinian models classified as poor habitats for this group. In addition, the Southwestern Brazilian continental margin encloses the most suitable habitats for deep reef-building species. This has important implications for conservation plans in that area already facing gas and oil exploitation and probably future mineral extraction. On the other hand, results suggest that different scleractinian cold-water coral species occupy similar environmental niches and, for this reason, I concluded that changes in environmental conditions, such as those associated to climate change, may affect them all. However, their niches are not equivalent and this suggests that each environmental factor could affect each species in different ways. In the third chapter, I performed HSM based on Maximum Entropy for Solenosmilia variabilis, Lophelia pertusa, Madrepora oculata and Enallopsammia rostrata with two different environmental variables resolution, a low (i.e., a coarse resolution data with pixel size of ca. 1000 m2) and a high resolution (pixel of ca. 100 m2) to determine the effect of the environmental variables resolution on habitat suitability model performances and spatial extent of predicted suitable areas. From the final suitability maps, the changes in area extent depending of both resolution models were measured based in different thresholds. The results showed different performances of the models depending on data resolution, with higher performance at higher resolution. Furthermore, the predicted area varied between resolutions and threshold chosen. These results highlight the importance of environmental variables resolution and their implications for the use of HSM in planning and managing Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).

This thesis focuses on the investigation of reef communities of the Saint Peter and Saint Paul´s Archipelago (SPSPA) across an euphotic/mesophotic depth gradient. Sampling was performed on shallow and mesophotic areas (0 to 90 m depth) using SCUBA and a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV). The present work is composed of four chapters: Chapter 1 deals with the quantitative assessment of reef fish communities, which were divided in three distinct communities associated with different depth strata. Clear shifts in habitat use and in size-frequency distributions were recorded for some species. Abundance of black-corals and depth were the most important factors affecting the structure of fish communities, with a clear association of fish with branching black-corals in the mesophotic zone. Chapter 2 presents the first detailed qualitative assessment of benthic communities of the SPSPA. The influence of biotic and abiotic variables shaping the structure of the benthic communities was evaluated. A total of 77 benthic taxa belonging to six major functional groups were recorded. Macroalgae was the richest group (41 infrageneric taxa), with 17 new records for the SPSPA. Turf algae were the most abundant group on both shallow and mesophotic reefs. Two distinct communities were detected: a shallow one composed primarily by the zoanthid Palythoa caribaeorum (Duchassaing and Michelotti, 1861), the fleshy alga Caulerpa racemosa (Forsskål) J. Agardh, crustose coralline algae (CCA) and Bryopsis spp., and another deeper community dominated by CCA, bryozoans and scleractinian corals. Abiotic variables were the most important predictors of benthic community structure. Chapter 3 brings information on abundance, distribution size and associated fauna (epibionts) of black-corals. Although two species of black-corals, Tanacetipathes hirta (Gray, 1857) and T. thamnea (Warner, 1981), are known to occur in the SPSPA, they are undistinguishable underwater. Epibiosis, mainly by zoanthids and entanglement by fishing monofilament were important factors negatively affecting the health of black-coral colonies. Black-corals were intensively used as refuge by reef fish, especially by the endemic oblique butterflyfish Prognathodes obliquus (Chaetodontidae). A single black-coral colony repeatedly visited and monitored for ten years showed a decrease in vitality since the first observation, mainly related to fouling by algal detritus and entanglement by fishing monofilaments. Chapter 4 discusses the ecology (abundance, distribution and habitat preferences) of the fireworm Hermodice carunculata, a major predator on mesophotic zone of SPSPA. A total of 278 individuals of bearded fireworm were observed, with significant difference in abundance between euphotic and mesophotic zones. A direct association of H. carunculata with black-corals (Tanacetipathes spp.), the scleractinian Madracis decactis and depth was found. A final session with concluding remarks wraps up information on the ecology of Mesophotic Reef Ecosystems highlighting their possible importance for the stability and persistence of reef fish and benthic communities of the SPSPA, which are under threat of overfishing and climate change, thus requiring urgent protective measures. / O tema central desta tese é estudar a ecologia de comunidades recifais ao longo do gradiente de profundidade no Arquipélago São Pedro e São Paulo (ASPSP), com ênfase nos Ecossistemas Recifais Mesofóticos (ERMs). As amostragens foram realizadas da superfície até a zona mesofótica (0 a 90 m de profundidade), utilizando SCUBA e Veículos Submersíveis de Operação Remota (VSORs). Esta tese é composta por quatro capítulos. No Capítulo 1 foi realizado uma avaliação quantitativa das comunidades de peixes, as quais formaram três comunidades distintas associadas aos diferentes estratos de profundidade e ao uso de diferentes hábitats de acordo com mudanças ontogenéticas (tamanho do corpo). Corais-negros e profundidade foram os fatores mais importantes na estruturação das comunidades de peixes, com uso intenso dos corais-negros por peixes na zona mesofótica. O Capítulo 2 apresenta a primeira avaliação qualitativa das comunidades bentônicas do ASPSP, além de uma avaliação da influência de variáveis bióticas e abióticas na estruturação das comunidades. Foram registrados 77 táxons bentônicos pertencentes a seis grupos. Macroalgas foi o grupo mais rico (41 táxons), com 17 novos registros para o ASPSP. Algas formadoras de tufos (turf) constituíram o grupo mais abundante em ambos os ambientes, eufótico e mesofótico. Foram observadas duas comunidades distintas: uma superficial composta principalmente pelo zoantídeo Palythoa caribaeorum, a pela alga Caulerpa racemosa carnuda, algas calcárias incrustantes (CCA) e Bryopsis spp, e outra mais profunda dominada por CCA, briozoários e corais escleractíneos. As variáveis abióticas, particularmente profundidade e luz, foram mais importantes na estrutura da comunidade bentônica. O Capítulo 3 traz informações sobre a abundância, distribuição, tamanho e vitalidade de corais-negros. Duas espécies de corais-negros, Tanacetipathes hirta (Gray, 1857) e T. thamnea (Warner, 1981), foram identificadas. Epibiose por zoantídeos e estrangulamento por monofilamentos afetaram negativamente as colônias de coral negro, uma delas monitorada durante dez anos. Esta última apresentou uma diminuição da vitalidade devido principalmente à presença de algas e estrangulamento por monofilamento. Corais-negros formam um grupo-chave na zona mesofótica do ASPSP, sendo intensamente utilizados como hábitat por diversos peixes recifais, principalmente espécies endêmicas (e.g., o peixe-borboleta Prognathodes obliquus). O Capítulo 4 aborda a ecologia do principal predador de invertebrados bentônicos na zona mesofótica do ASPSP, o verme-de-fogo Hermodice carunculata, descrevendo sua abundância e distribuição batimétrica e discutindo seu potencial em impactar as comunidades bentônicas, especialmente os corais escleractínios e os corais-negros na zona mesofótica do ASPSP. Observou-se um total de 278 indivíduos, com diferença significativa na abundância entre as zonas eufótica e mesofótica. Foi encontrada uma associação direta entre H. carunculata e 1) corais-negros (Tanacetipathes spp), 2) o coral escleractíneo Madracis decactis e 3) profundidade. Sugere-se aqui que os ecossistemas mesofóticos são essenciais para a estabilidade para as comunidades recifais eufóticas do ASPSP, tornando urgente a necessidade de novos estudos, principalmente com foco no potencial impacto da pesca e mudanças climáticas.

Na presente dissertação eu estudei a distribuição potencial dos corais de águas profundas ao longo da margem continental brasileira e o efeito da resolução das variáveis ambientais em modelos de adequabilidade de habitat (MAH). Primeiramente foi determinada a distribuição potencial de corais de águas profundas a partir de modelos de adequabilidade de habitat de máxima entropia (MaxEnt). Os modelos foram alimentados com diversas camadas de dados SIG de variáveis ambientais e dados de ocorrência de espécies extraídos de bancos de dados e de novos registros. Foram estudados os grupos Scleractinia e Octocorallia, assim como quatro espécies de corais formadores de recifes (Solenosmilia variabilis, Lophelia pertusa, Madrepora oculata e Enallopsammia rostrata) e duas espécies de escleractínios não formadores de recifes (Cladocora debilis e Deltocyathus spp.). O nicho ambiental ocupado pelos táxons foi representado a partir de uma análise multivariada, sendo determinada a sobreposição entre os nichos. A partir disso foi avaliada a similaridade e equivalência de nicho ambiental entre as espécies. Os modelos resultantes indicaram que Scleractinia apresenta distribuição potencial na margem continental leste e sudeste do Brasil (porção Central e Sul), enquanto que Octocorallia apresenta uma distribuição potencial mais ampla abarcando toda a margem continental brasileira, com maior adequabilidade nas margens norte e nordeste. Assim, as áreas de distribuição potencial compartilhada entre octocorais e escleractínios foram aquelas ao largo da porção leste e sudeste do Brasil, sendo estas prioritárias para futuras pesquisas. Os nichos ambientais específicos indicaram menos tolerância de Scleractinia a altas temperaturas em comparação com Octocorallia. Os octocorais ocuparam uma maior amplitude do gradiente ambiental, principalmente relacionado às condições de carbono orgânico particulado, oxigênio dissolvido e temperatura. Isto possivelmente permite aos octocorais habitar a porção norte da margem continental brasileira, onde os modelos de escleractínios indicaram baixa adequabilidade de habitat. A margem continental sudeste do Brasil teve a maior adequabilidade para as espécies de escleractínios formadores de recifes profundos. Isto é de grande valor para planos de conservação nesta área que atualmente apresenta atividades de extração de óleo e gás e que, futuramente, pode ser explotada para a extração de minério. Além disso, as espécies formadoras de recifes ocuparam nichos ambientais similares e, portanto, mudanças nas condições ambientais, como por exemplo as associadas às mudanças climáticas, podem afetar todas elas. Contudo, seus nichos não são equivalentes e, portanto, cada uma delas faz um uso diferente do espaço ambiental da margem continental brasileira. Por último, foram desenvolvidos modelos MaxEnt para Solenosmilia variabilis, Lophelia pertusa, Madrepora oculata e Enallopsammia rostrata em duas resoluções de análise, uma de baixa (i.e., com um tamanho de pixel de aproximadamente 1000 m2) e uma de alta resolução (i.e., pixel de aproximadamente 100 m2) para determinar o efeito da resolução das variáveis ambientais utilizadas na performance e na extensão de área predita de modelos de adequabilidade de habitat. A diferença na extensão da área adequada predita por ambas resoluções foi medida de acordo a três limiares de corte diferentes. Os resultados indicaram diferenças na performance dependendo da resolução, com maior performance nos modelos de alta resolução. Além disso, a extensão de área adequada predita foi geralmente maior nos modelos de baixa resolução, com algumas exceções dependendo da espécie e do limiar de corte. Estes resultados ressaltam a importância da resolução das variáveis ambientais e suas implicações no uso de MAH no planejamento e manejo de Áreas Marinhas Protegidas (MPAs). / In this thesis I studied the deep-sea coral distribution along the Southwestern Atlantic Ocean and the effect of the environmental variables resolution on habitat suitability models (HSM). In the second chapter, I developed HSM based on the Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) algorithm to identify the potential distribution of deep-water corals. To perform the models, I have used species presence data from existing datasets together with new species records and global environmental variables. I used the main environmental variables to identify suitable areas by modeling niches of different coral taxa. The studied taxa were Scleractinia and Octocorallia, as well as four reef-forming scleractinian species (Solenosmilia variabilis, Lophelia pertusa, Madrepora oculata and Enallopsammia rostrata), and two non-reef-building scleractinians (Cladocora debilis and Deltocyathus spp.). Furthermore, I used multivariate approach to compare their environmental occupied niche in order to assess the spatial niche overlap and test niche similarity and equivalence. The resulting cold-water coral models showed that the most suitable areas occur along the west and southwestern continental margin of Brazil, which permitted to determine areas of priority for future exploration/research to determine conservation areas. Specific environmental niches suggested lower tolerance to high temperatures for Scleractinia than for Octocorallia. Besides, octocorals occupied a wider range of the environmental gradient, which was mainly related to particulate organic carbon, oxygen and temperature. This probably enables them to inhabit the northern part of Brazil where scleratinian models classified as poor habitats for this group. In addition, the Southwestern Brazilian continental margin encloses the most suitable habitats for deep reef-building species. This has important implications for conservation plans in that area already facing gas and oil exploitation and probably future mineral extraction. On the other hand, results suggest that different scleractinian cold-water coral species occupy similar environmental niches and, for this reason, I concluded that changes in environmental conditions, such as those associated to climate change, may affect them all. However, their niches are not equivalent and this suggests that each environmental factor could affect each species in different ways. In the third chapter, I performed HSM based on Maximum Entropy for Solenosmilia variabilis, Lophelia pertusa, Madrepora oculata and Enallopsammia rostrata with two different environmental variables resolution, a low (i.e., a coarse resolution data with pixel size of ca. 1000 m2) and a high resolution (pixel of ca. 100 m2) to determine the effect of the environmental variables resolution on habitat suitability model performances and spatial extent of predicted suitable areas. From the final suitability maps, the changes in area extent depending of both resolution models were measured based in different thresholds. The results showed different performances of the models depending on data resolution, with higher performance at higher resolution. Furthermore, the predicted area varied between resolutions and threshold chosen. These results highlight the importance of environmental variables resolution and their implications for the use of HSM in planning and managing Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).

Earth’s climate is intricately linked to the carbon cycle through the radiative effect of atmospheric carbon dioxide. The ocean plays a central role in this climate-carbon system; as oceans store ∼50 times more carbon than the atmosphere, even small changes in ocean chemistry could greatly affect global climate. Understanding how the oceanic carbon reservoir has evolved across changing climates is thus critical for both constraining mechanisms of climate change and predicting impacts from anthropogenic carbon addition. This dissertation contributes to knowledge of the ocean carbon reservoir’s evolution across the last 1.5 million years of Earth’s history, with a particular focus on two key intervals of climatic change: 1) Present day, when a large, human-sourced perturbation to the carbon cycle is underway, the effects of which are not yet fully realized; and 2) The mid-Pleistocene transition (MPT; ∼900,000 years ago), when natural cycles of global warming and cooling increased in intensity and duration. Without direct observations for both these time intervals, I focus on documenting changes to ocean carbon chemistry using proxies for seawater composition. The primary tools for this purpose are boron concentrations (B/Ca ratios) and the boron isotopic composition (δ11B) of carbonate skeletons produced by marine organisms. These tools are rooted in the aqueous chemistry of boron, in which the speciation and isotopic composition of boron compounds change with seawater pH. To test present-day changes in the oceanic carbon reservoir, I measured δ11B on the calcitic skeletons of deep-sea corals (genus Keratoisis). Results show that while coral δ11B does correlate with deep ocean pH, δ11B variations within coral skeletons are too large to be explained by changes in deep ocean pH over the corals’ lifespan. These variations most likely reflect the biology of the coral organism, suggesting that δ11B measurements in Keraotisis cannot be utilized to track ocean pH until coral growth mechanisms are better understood. To complement these δ11B data, I measured the radiocarbon (14C) content of Keratoisis skeletons. Results show that coral skeletal 14C tightly correlates to the 14C content of the deep ocean, and that bamboo corals live for 50 to 300 years with radial growth rates of 10 to 80 μm per year. This supports the use of 14C for generating bamboo coral ages and growth rates, and for tracking perturbations to the 14C content of the deep ocean. Through my deep-sea coral study, I learned the importance of accurate and precise δ11B measurements for sound interpretations of ocean carbon chemistry. These interpretations necessitate highly specialized analysis protocols. While two protocols are commonly applied for δ11B measurements, existing comparisons found relatively large offsets between both protocols. To trace the cause and implications of this offset, I established a new δ11B measurement protocol and performed an internal comparison between the new and existing measurement protocols. Results confirm that carbonate δ11B values are significantly offset between techniques. Although the nature of this offset remains enigmatic, I show that both techniques show the same δ11B-to-pH sensitivity, and consistent pH estimates are obtained when a protocol-specific constant offset is applied. This suggests that both δ11B analysis protocols can be applied for reconstructing pH with equal confidence. To test for changes in the ocean carbon reservoir across the MPT, I investigated the B/Ca and Cd/Ca composition of the benthic foraminifer Cibicidoides wuellerstorfi to track deep ocean carbonate saturation state (∆[CO32−]) and nutrient inventories. At 4.3 km water depth in the South Atlantic Ocean, B/Ca abruptly decreased by 20% and Cd/Ca increased by 40% between 950 and 900 ka, equivalent to a 60 μmol/kg increase in abyssal ocean carbon storage. Coincident shifts in deep ocean circulation and atmospheric pCO2 around 900 ka suggest that a new regime of deep ocean carbon sequestration developed during the MPT. I argue that this regime was intricately linked with the increased magnitude and duration of glacial cycles following the MPT.

Dimethylsulphoniopropionate (DMSP) and dimethylsulphoxide (DMSO) (collectively DMSP/O) are produced by marine algae, including symbiotic algae within corals. These sulphur compounds are important not only in sulphur cycle dynamics but also in potentially mediating atmospheric conditions, alleviating the effects of climate change and contributing to reef health. Most research has focused on the production of DMSP and its major degradation product, the climatically active gas, dimethylsulphide (DMS) by Acropora corals in the Great Barrier Reef. However, mechanisms for the production and release of DMSP/O by different reef taxa is poorly understood. Recently the importance of mesophotic reefs as refugia for shallow water corals has been postulated, however their role in the marine sulphur cycle is unknown. This research aimed to improve our understanding of the contemporary and climate change induced seawater and tissue production of DMSP/O in a range of reef environments and taxa. This was achieved through a combination of laboratory and field - based studies, using modern and established techniques. An effect of both elevated temperature and OA on increased tissue and seawater concentrations of DMSP/O production is reported in field and laboratory studies. Contrasting effects of benthic cover on tissue DMSP/O distributions and seawater DMSP are also noted. The importance of the physical and hydrodynamic environment on biogeochemical connectivity both within a reef and between neighbouring reefs is also focussed on. Crucially, however, the novel tissue and seawater data from mesophotic sites suggests that deeper reefs could affect the biogeochemistry of their shallow water counterparts. The key finding from this work is that climate change will result in increased seawater DMSP concentrations via two mechanisms; through the increase of cellular production of DMSP/O in all reef taxa, and by increasing the biomass of prolific DMSP producers as reefs transition to a fleshy/macroalgal assemblage. Whilst this could potentially mediate the effects of climate change, it will probably also worsen overall reef health, lead to a restructuring of reef communities from the microbial level upwards and will have possibly permanent and deleterious effects on overall ecosystem function.

L’influence de la diversité génétique sur la stabilité démographique des populations constitue un paradigme de l’écologie évolutive. Au sein des populations naturelles, l’étude de cette relation est complexifiée par l’influence réciproque de la stabilité sur la diversité, et leur degré d’interconnexion. Ces interrelations ont été explorées chez la plante marine Zostera marina et les coraux d’eau froide Lophelia pertusa et Madrepora oculata, des espèces partiellement clonales. Ce trait d’histoire de vie, influençant profondément la dynamique démographique et la trajectoire évolutive des espèces, a constitué le fil d’Ariane de ce travail. L’échantillonnage dans l’espace (échelle régionale) et le temps (un pas de trois ans) d’herbiers de Zostère a permis de mieux comprendre la dynamique clonale de ces plantes. L’architecture et la diversité clonale apparaissent comme la résultante de l’équilibre entre dispersion/recrutement de nuages de graines dispersées collectivement, et la compétition pour l’espace entre clones. Les perturbations affectent localement l’équilibre de l’herbier. Cette dynamique originale rend impossible l’identification des contours populationnels. En revanche, nos résultats semblent indiquer que la diversité génétique au sens strict (hétérozygotie et nombre d’allèles) des herbiers de Zostères constitue un facteur de stabilité démographique, via sa potentielle influence sur les capacités de résistance aux perturbations saisonnières. Les coraux d’eau froide, quant à eux, présentent des patrons biogéographiques en accord avec l’hypothèse d’une extinction dans le Golfe de Gascogne, lors des derniers épisodes glaciaires. Les marques visibles des activités de pêche posent la question des capacités de résilience de ces écosystèmes, qui dépendent entre autres du potentiel de dispersion de ces espèces. L’absence de structure génétique observée chez L. pertusa suggère, au moins pour cette espèce, un fort degré d’interconnexion entre les récifs, tandis que M. oculata montre davantage de structure régionale. La sensibilité de ces espèces aux variations climatiques et à la pression des activités anthropiques souligne la nécessité d’études approfondies, pour leur conservation.Les résultats obtenus pendant cette thèse permettent de mieux comprendre la dynamique populationnelle des herbiers et récifs profonds, le taux de clonalité et la connectivité des populations. Ces informations sont essentielles pour avancer vers une meilleure compréhension de la dynamique et la résistance de ces espèces structurantes, et sont donc primordiales pour la conservation de ces écosystèmes clé. / The influence of genetic diversity on the demographic stability of populations constitutes a paradigm in evolutionary ecology. The complexity of this relationship within natural populations is enhanced by the reciprocal effect of stability on diversity, and the degree of interconnection among populations. This interaction was explored within the seagrass Zostera marina and the cold-water corals Lophelia pertusa and Madrepora oculata, three partially clonal species. This life history trait, deeply influencing the population dynamics and evolutionary trajectory of species, constituted the underlying theme of this work.The sampling in space (regional scale) and time (a three-years step) of eelgrass meadows allowed us to better understand the clonal dynamics of these plants. The clonal architecture and diversity may result from the equilibrium between dispersal/recruitment of collectively dispersed clouds of seeds, and the competition for space among clones. Perturbations locally affect the equilibrium of meadows. This original dynamic makes impossible the identification of population contours. Yet, our results suggest that the genetic diversity sensu stricto (heterozygosity and number of alleles) represents a factor of demographic stability, through its putative influence on resistance capacity for seasonal disturbances. Cold-water corals show biogeographic pattern in line with the hypothesis of glacial extinction, within the Bay of Biscay. The noticeable footprints of fishing activities question the capacity of resilience of these ecosystems, depending on dispersal potential of the structuring species, which showed low levels of clonality. The lack of genetic structure observed for L. pertusa suggest, at least for this species, a high degree of interconnection among reefs at large scale, while M. oculata revealed a stronger regional structure. Sensitivity of these two species to climatic variations and the pressures of human activities highlight the need of thorough studies for their conservation. Results obtained during this thesis allow a better understanding of the populations dynamics of both seagrass and deep reefs and their levels of clonality and connectivity. This information constitutes the first step toward a better understanding of dynamics and resistance of these structuring species, and is also primordial for the conservation of their key ecosystems.

Many members of the Phylum Cnidaria are mutualistic with unicellular dinoflagellates belonging to the genus Symbiodinium. Corals are the most widely recognized example of these associations due to their key ecological importance in coral reef ecosystems where they serve as the structural and trophic foundation of these rich ecosystems. Coral reefs are severely threatened by human activities worldwide and are at great risk from global climate change, in particular the increase in seasurface temperatures. Detailed knowledge of how corals respond to stress is scarce. The most serious and immediate response of corals to environmental stress is a process referred to as coral bleaching (a.k.a. cnidarian bleaching). Nevertheless, the cellular and molecular processes by which elevated temperatures elicit the bleaching response are poorly understood. This dissertation deals with this important question by describing two mediators of cnidarian bleaching in the model symbiotic tropical sea anemone Aiptasia pallida (Verril), namely nitric oxide and cyclophilin. After an introduction to the topic of cnidarian-algal symbioses and cnidarian bleaching (Chapter 1), I present results from a study describing the involvement of nitric oxide (NO) in the anemone A. pallida (Chapter 2). Elevated temperature as well as oxidative stress induces production of NO and exposure of A. pallida to NO induces bleaching at non-stressful temperatures. Co-incubation with an NO scavenger suppresses bleaching. I propose that the host up-regulates NO production in response to elevated oxidative stress and that this situation leads to cytotoxicity and bleaching. Chapter 3 examines the role of cyclophilin from A. pallida in the regulation of the symbiosis. Cyclophilins belong to a highly conserved family peptydyl-prolyl cistrans isomerases (PPIases). Incubation of A. pallida with cyclosporin A (CsA), a potent inhibitor of cyclophilin resulted in bleaching and a decrease in tolerance to elevated temperatures. Protein extracts from A. pallida exhibited CsA-sensitive PPIase activity. Laser scanning confocal microscopy using superoxide and nitric oxide-sensitive fluorescent dyes on live A. pallida revealed that CsA strongly induced the production reactive oxygen species as well as NO. We tested weather the CsAsensitive isomerase activity is important for maintaining the activity of the antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD). SOD activity of protein extracts was not affected by pre-incubation with CsA in vitro. In Chapter 4 I review what is known about the molecular and cellular mechanisms of bleaching and describe a model of bleaching based on the results presented herein as well as studies of non-cnidarian models. / Graduation date: 2007

One of the ocean’s greatest resources is the coral reefs, providing unique habitats for alarge variety of organisms. During drilling operations offshore many activities maypotentially harm these sensitive habitats. Det Norske Veritas (DNV) has developed arisk-based approach for planning of drilling operations called Coral Risk Assessment (CRA) to reduce the risk of negative effects upon cold water corals (Lophelia pertusa) on the Norwegian Continental Shelf (NCS). In order to get a good risk assessment amodelled dispersion plume of the drilling discharges is recommended. This study concerned a drilling case at the Pumbaa field (NOCS 6407/12-2) on the NCS, and used two different dispersion models, the DREAM model and the MUDFATE model in order to investigate how to perform good risk assessments. In the drill planning process a decision to move the discharge location 300 m north-west from the actual drilling location and reducing the amount of drilling discharges, was made inorder to reduce the risk for the coral targets in the area. The CRA analysis indicated that these decisions minimised the risk for the corals, and showed that the environmentalactions in the drill planning processes are necessary in order to reduce the risk for the coral targets and that the analysis method is a preferable tool to use. The amount of discharges, the ocean current data, the discharge location and the condition of the coral targets are the factors having the most important impact on the CRA results. From monitoring analysis from the case of study, it can be seen that a pile builds up around the discharge location. The dispersion models do not seem to take into account this build-up of a pile and thereby overestimate the dispersion of drilling discharges. This observation was done when modelled barite deposit was compared with barium concentrations measured in the sediment after the drilling operation. The overestimationis the case for the DREAM model, but has not been seen in the simulations with the MUDFATE model. Results from the modelling also indicated a higher overestimation for the DREAM model when using a cutting transport system (CTS) to release thedrilling discharges compared to release the discharges without using the CTS. / Korallrev består av ett skelett av kalciumkarbonat som bygger upp unika habitat på havsbotten. Dessa utnyttjas av flera olika organismer och är en av havets största och viktigaste resurser. Under prospekteringsborrningar till havs sker stora mängder utsläpp som kan påverka de känsliga miljöerna negativt. Det Norske Veritas (DNV) har utvecklat en riskbaserad strategi för planering av prospekteringsborrning i områden med koraller kallad Coral Risk Assessment (CRA). I CRA-analysen utvärderas risken för korallstrukturer (Lophelia pertusa) att påverkas av olika borrningsaktiviteter. Spridningsmodellering av det förväntade utsläppet från borrningsoperationen är ett viktigt hjälpmedel för att kunna utföra riskanalysen på ett tillfredsställande sätt. Studien har studerat en tidigare utförd prospekteringsborrning på Pumbaa-fältet (NOCS 6407/12-2) på den norska kontinentalsockeln och två olika spridningsmodeller DREAM och MUDFATE har jämförts i studien med syfte att förbättre riskbedömningen. I planeringsstadiet av prospekteringsborrningen togs ett beslut att flytta utsläppspunkten för det producerade borrslammet 300 m nordväst från brunnen samt att mängden borrslam skulle reduceras för att minska risken för påverkan på korallstrukturerna i området. CRA-analysen som utfördes i denna studie visade att dessa beslut minskat risken för korallstrukturerna att bli påverkade. Detta indikerar således att analysmetoden är ett viktigt verktyg att använda vid miljöundersökningar i planeringsstadiet för att minska risken för oönskad påverkan från aktiviteter i samband med prospekteringsborrning. De faktorer som har störst påverkan på CRA-analysen är mängden borrslam, strömdata, utsläppspunkt och tillståndet på korallstrukturerna. Under miljöövervakningen i samband med borrningsprocessen påvisades det att vallar av borrslam byggdes upp nära utsläppspunkten, vilket skedde relativt snabbt efter det att utsläppet startat. Spridningsmodellerna verkar inte ta hänsyn till denna uppbyggnad utan överestimerar spridningen och depositionen av borrslam. Detta har påvisats vid jämförelser av modellerade och uppmätta värden av bariumkoncentrationer i sedimentet. Överestimeringen är påvisad för DREAM, men slutsatsen är mer osäker för MUDFATE. Spridningsmodelleringen med DREAM indikerar även en större överestimering av resultaten om utsläppen sker med en så kallad CTS (Cutting Transport System).

Coral recruitment is a key process that contributes to the community structure and resilience of coral reefs. As such, quantification of this process is important to assist with the management of these threatened ecosystems. While coral recruitment has been the focus of numerous studies over the past 30 years, an understanding of this process on the high-latitude reefs of South Africa is limited. In addition, variations in methods used in recruitment studies make the results difficult to compare. A rapid in-situ method for universal application in the detection of early post-settled recruits would thus be useful. In this study, scleractinian coral recruitment was investigated at three study sites on Two-mile Reef, over two six-month sampling periods, covering summer and winter. Two components were investigated by attaching settlement tiles consisting of ceramic and marble tiles, and ceramic tiles conditioned with crustose coralline algae (CCA) onto the reef in a spatially structured experimental design. Firstly, coral recruitment was compared on the three different tile surfaces and fluorescence photography was investigated as a rapid in situ technique to detect early post-settled recruits. Fluorescence photography was then used to compare recruitment on tiles with the surrounding natural substrata. Secondly, the spatial and temporal variation in the abundance, composition and size of recruits was investigated. Additionally, the percentage cover of biota surrounding each recruit within three millimeters of its corallum was visually estimated to quantify the microhabitat surroundings of coral recruits. Overall recruitment on the three tile types differed, yet spatial variation in coral recruitment, regardless of tile surface, accounted for most of the variance in recruitment. While the highest recruitment occurred on CCA tiles, this was not significantly greater than ceramic tiles, indicating that the conditioning of ceramic tiles with Mesophyllum funafutiense CCA did not enhance coral settlement in this study. Although many recruits were not detected with fluorescent photography (73%), it proved useful to reveal recruits as small as 0.75 mm in corallum diameter, and indicated that recruitment on the tiles and natural substratum differ significantly. Spatially, the abundance and composition of coral recruits differed between study sites, within sites, and predominantly occurred on tile edges. Coral recruitment was lowest at shallower sites, and was dominated by pocilloporids regardless of study site. Additionally, the abundance and composition of recruits differed between the two sampling periods, with a 6.6-fold decrease in the mean abundance of recruits from summer to winter, with only pocilloporid settlement occurring in the latter season. The majority of recruits were <3 mm, and their microhabitat was dominated by bare substrata and crustose coralline algae. The results suggest that, while the choice of artificial settlement surface used in such studies can have a profound influence on the results, spatial variation in recruitment can be greater. The recovery of scleractinian coral taxa on Two-mile Reef in the event of a severe disturbance is expected to differ, with greatest recovery in areas of high levels of recruitment. The microhabitat surrounding recruits is described here for the first time, suggesting that further research into coral-crustose coralline algae interactions is warranted. Finally, while fluorescence photography has its limitations, it shows promise as a useful tool for rapid qualitative, but not quantitative, assessment of recruitment. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2011.

The development of coral reefs is largely restricted to areas within the tropics where favourable conditions for both coral and reef growth prevail. There is, however, a continuum from these typical, accretive reefs in the tropics to marginal, non-accretive, coral-dominated reef communities which occur at higher latitudes. High-latitude reefs function similarly in many regards to their tropical counterparts and are regulated by similar processes to a varying degree. In this study, the major biological and physico-chemical processes were assessed which directly or indirectly prevent the continued persistence of reefal frameworks and thus hinder reef accretion on high-latitude reefs in the iSimangaliso Wetland Park. These reefs have a high diversity of hard and soft corals with significant reef coverage, yet little evidence of any biogenic accretion has been observed. The scleractinian coral, Acropora austera, is one of the few corals which may be responsible for reef framework production. It exhibits a gregarious growth pattern, forming large, monospecific stands with an interlocking framework characteristic of the early stages of reef accretion. The framebuilding potential of A. austera and the continued persistence of such frameworks were thus determined by in situ monitoring of coral growth, mortality, bioerosion and several physico-chemical parameters. Growth rate and mortality of A. austera branches were measured at three sites of differing stand size and apparent age. This was achieved by repeated image analysis and by staining branches with the vital stain, Alizarin Red S. Both measures of growth yielded a similar linear extension rate of 24.5 mm/yr (n = 467), comparable to related species at similar latitudes. Mean branch mortality was as high as 50%, with clear differences manifested between each A. austera stand. Branch extension rates and branch mortality were inversely related between sites. Small, young stands exhibited significantly faster coral growth rates, lower mortality and a net increase in overall branch length over the study period, whilst the opposite was true of larger, more developed stands. In addition, bioerosion was determined at each site to assess its potential for carbonate removal and its destabilizing effect on reef frameworks. Bioerosion intensity was recorded as “percentage area damage” within cross-sections and “frequency of occurrence” of bioeroding organisms in coral rubble fragments (n = 120). The level of bioerosion was found to be substantial (up to 11.5% loss in weight of coral fragments over the 12-month study period) and was found to decrease significantly with a reduction in size of each A. austera stand. Aragonite saturation state is considered a major factor that limits the geographical range of coral reefs globally. Although previously thought to be limiting in Maputaland, mean ΩArag values of 4.40±0.29 were measured on the reefs in summer and 4.33±0.21 in winter and thus would not have limited reef development. Past studies have noted the turbulence on South African east coast reefs and its adverse effect on reef development. This was corroborated in this study with the measurement of considerable sediment re-suspension (0.17 g cm⁻² day⁻¹) and regular damage to both living coral and the reef framework caused by large swells. These results lead to the theory that Acropora austera stands senesce with increasing size and age. Although large coral frameworks are found on the Maputaland reefs, they do not persist in the long term. High rates of sediment re-suspension prevent infilling of the interstitial spaces and eventual cementation, while high levels of bioerosion lead to framework instability over time. Rough seas further hamper accretion by physical removal of both living coral and the coral-derived framework, thus removing recent growth. This process is suspected to cause an imbalance in the carbonate budget of these marginal reefs, ultimately favoring carbonate removal over carbonate deposition. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2011.