<p>  </p> <p>Fossil fuel has dominated the global energy market for centuries, and the world is undergoing a great energy revolution from fossil fuel energy to renewable energies, given the concerns on global warming and extreme weather caused by the emission of carbon dioxide. Lithium ion batteries (LIBs) play an irreplaceable role in this incredible energy transition from fossil energy to renewable energy, given their importance in energy storage for electricity grids and promoting the mass adoption of battery electric vehicles (BEVs). Extreme fast charging (XFC) of LIBs, aiming to shorten the charging time to 15 minutes, will significantly improve their adoption in both the EV market and grid energy storage. However, XFC has been significantly hindered by the relatively sluggish Li+ transport within LIBs.</p> <p>Herein, effects caused by increasing charging rates (from 1C, 4C to 6C) on LiNi0.6Mn0.2Co0.2O2 (NMC622) || graphite cell were systematically probed via various characterization methods. From electrochemical test on their rate/long term cycling performance, the significant decrease in available capacity under high charging rates was verified. Structural evolutions of cycled NMC622 cathode and graphite anode were further probed via ex-situ powder diffraction, and it was found that lattice parameters <em>a</em> and <em>c</em> of NMC622 experience irreversible evolution due to loss of active Li+ within NMC622; no structural evolution was found for the graphite anode, even after 200 cycles under 6C (10 minutes) high charging rates. The aging behavior of liquid electrolyte was further analyzed via inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), increased Li+ concentration under higher charging rates and show-up of diethyl carbonate (DEC) and dimethyl carbonate (DMC) caused by transesterification both suggest faster aging/degradation of liquid electrolyte under higher charging rates.  </p> <p>Given the structural evolution of NMC622 caused by irreversible Li+ loss after long term cycling, the structural evolution of both NMC622 cathode and lithiated graphite anode were further studied via operando neutron diffraction on customized LiNi0.6Mn0.2Co0.2O2 (NMC622) || graphite cell. Via a quantitative analysis of collected Bragg peaks for NMC622 and lithiated graphite anode, we found the rate independent structural evolution of NMC622: its lattice parameters <em>a</em> and <em>c</em> are mainly determined by Li+ contents within it (<em>x</em> within Li<em>x</em>Ni0.6Mn0.2Co0.2O2) and follow the same evolution during the deintercalation process, from slowest 0.27 C charging to the fastest 4.4 C charging. For graphite intercalated compounds (GICs) formed during Li+ intercalating into graphite, the sequential phase transition from pure graphite → stage III (LiC30) → stage II (LiC12) → stage I (LiC6) phase under 0.27 C charging is consistent with previous studies. This sequential phase transition is generally maintained under increasing charging rates, and the co-existence of LiC12 phase and LiC6 was found for lithiated graphite under 4.4 C charging, mainly due to the large inhomogeneity under these high charging rates. Meanwhile, for the stage II (LiC12) → stage I (LiC6) transition, which contributes half the specific capacity for the graphite anode, quantitative analysis via Johnson-Mehl-Avrami-Kolmogorov (JMAK) model suggests it to be a diffusion-controlled, one-dimensional transition, with decreasing nucleation kinetics under increasing charging rates. </p> <p>Based on the LiC12 → LiC6 transition process, strategies to improve the Li+ transport properties were further utilized. Various cosolvents with smaller viscosity, from dimethyl carbonate (DMC), ethyl acetate (EA), methyl acetate (MA) to ethyl formate (EF), were further tested by replacing 20% (weight percent) ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC) of typical 1.2 M LiPF6 salt solvated in ethylene carbonate (EC)/EMC solvents (with a weight ratio of 30:70). From the measurement of their ion conductivity, the introduction of these cosolvents indeed enhanced the Li+ transport properties. This was further verified by improved rate performance from 2C, 3C to 4C charging for liquid electrolytes using these cosolvents. Both X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) indicated the increase of Ni valence state and structural evolution of NMC622, all resulting from the irreversible loss of active Li+ within the NMC622 cathode. From long term cycling performance and further analysis of interfaces formed between electrode and anode, the best performance of electrolyte using DMC cosolvent was attributed to the most stable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) and cathode electrolyte interphase (CEI) formed during the cycling. </p>

Submitted by Marilene Donadel (marilene.donadel@unioeste.br) on 2018-04-27T00:49:59Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Katia_A_Santos_2018.pdf: 1940481 bytes, checksum: dd10357b3e5c25bdf7e64bb4148af513 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-04-27T00:49:59Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Katia_A_Santos_2018.pdf: 1940481 bytes, checksum: dd10357b3e5c25bdf7e64bb4148af513 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-03-02 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / Candeia (Eremanthus erythropappus) is a native species of the Brazilian Atlantic forest from which an essential oil with high concentration of sesquiterpene α-bisabolol is extracted. α-Bisabolol is an active principle of important application in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries due to its anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, sedative, antiallergic, anti-irritant, cicatrizant and vermifugal properties. Steam distillation is the most common method used to obtain this oil, with requires long periods of time extraction besides the degradation of thermosensitive compounds. Within this context, the aim of this study was to evaluate the quality of the candeia wood oils obtained by non-conventional methods of extraction (supercritical technology by using carbon dioxide and cosolvents, pressurized liquid and ultrasound-assisted extraction), in terms of oil yield, bisabolol content and antioxidant activity. In addition, the oil re-extraction from the industrial residue was also evaluated. The extractions were carried out with CO2 at temperatures of 40, 55 and 70 oC and pressures of 160, 200 and 240 bar, with a solvent mass flow rate of 1.96 x 10−3 kg min−1 and 120 min of total extraction. The highest extraction yield obtained was 1.42 wt% for the candeia wood and 0.41 wt% for the residue, both at 70 oC and 240 bar, and this condition was selected to perform the extractions using cosolvents. Ethanol and ethyl acetate were added to supercritical CO2 at concentrations of 1, 3 and 5 % (v/v), obtaining up to 2.35 wt% of yield. The Soxhlet (360 min) and pressurized liquid (40, 55 and 70 oC; 100 bar and 20 min) extractions showed the affinity of the candeia compounds for polar solvents and the positive effect of the temperature on the yield, which varied from 0.53 to 7.23 wt%. A Box-Benhken design was employed to evaluate the effect of the variables temperature (40, 50 and 60 oC), n-hexane volume to wood mass (10, 15 and 20 mL g-1) and nominal power (150, 300 and 450 W) on the yield of ultrasound-assisted extractions, obtaining in 7 minutes of extraction, up to 83% of the yield obtained in the conventional technique in Soxhlet (1.57 wt%), with a solvent volume 2.5 times smaller. The major compounds identified in the candeia oil were the sesquiterpenes α-bisabolol, eremanthin and costunolide, and the α-bisabolol content in the oil is favored by the lowest CO2 density, with 74.45 % being obtained for the candeia wood and 50.62 % for the residue, in both cases in oil extracted at 70 oC and 160 bar. The addition of ethanol and ethyl acetate cosolvents to CO2 increased the α-bisabolol yield by 41 %. Also, the cosolvents increased the amount of total phenolic content in the oil, and consequently, its antioxidant capacity. The oil fractionation by column chromatography was efficient for α-bisabolol isolation. However, unlike the candeia wood oil, this compound was not effective in inhibiting the Staphylococcus aureus growth. In relation to the supercritical extractions, the Sovová mathematical model presented a good adjustment to the experimental data for all the conditions used. / A candeia (Eremanthus erythropappus) é uma árvore nativa da Mata Atlântica da qual se extrai um óleo essencial com elevada concentração do sesquiterpeno α-bisabolol, princípio ativo de grande aplicação nas indústrias de cosméticos e farmacêutica devido às suas propriedades anti-inflamatória, antiespasmódica, sedativa, antialérgica, anti-irritante, cicatrizante e vermífuga. A obtenção deste óleo em escala industrial é realizada pelo processo de destilação por arraste a vapor, com elevado tempo de extração, além da degradação de compostos termossensíveis. Neste contexto, o presente trabalho tem como objetivo avaliar a qualidade dos óleos da madeira de candeia, obtidos por métodos não convencionais de extração (tecnologia supercrítica com dióxido de carbono e cossolventes, líquidos pressurizados e solvente assistido por ultrassom), em termos de rendimento, teor de α-bisabolol e atividade antioxidante. Ainda, avaliar a re-extração do óleo do resíduo industrial. As extrações foram realizadas com CO2 nas temperaturas de 40, 55 e 70 oC e pressões de 160, 200 e 240 bar, com vazão mássica de solvente de 1,96 x 10-3 kg min-1 e tempo total de 120 minutos. O maior rendimento obtido para o óleo da candeia nas extrações supercríticas foi de 1,42 % e de 0,41 % para o resíduo, ambos em 70 oC e 240 bar, condição selecionada para os experimentos com cossolventes. Os solventes etanol e acetato de etila foram utilizados nas concentrações de 1, 3 e 5 % (v/v) junto ao CO2, proporcionando rendimentos de até 2,35 %. As extrações Soxhlet (360 min) e com líquidos pressurizados (40, 55 e 70 oC; 100 bar e 20 min) evidenciaram a afinidade dos compostos por solventes polares e o efeito positivo da temperatura sobre o rendimento, de 0,53 a 7,23 %. Um planejamento Box-Behnken foi empregado para avaliar efeitos da temperatura (40, 50 e 60 oC), razão volume de n-hexano/massa de madeira (10, 15 e 20 mL g-1) e potência ultrassônica nominal do equipamento (150, 300 e 450 W) sobre rendimento em óleo, obtendo-se, em 7 minutos de extração, até 83 % do rendimento obtido na técnica convencional em Soxhlet (1,57 %), com volume de solvente 2,5 vezes menor. Os compostos majoritários identificados no óleo da candeia foram os sesquiterpenos α-bisabolol, eremantina e costunolida, e o conteúdo do α-bisabolol no óleo foi favorecido pela menor densidade do CO2 supercrítico, sendo de até 74,5 % para a madeira de candeia e 50,6 % para o resíduo, ambos extraídos na condição de 70 oC e 160 bar. A adição dos cossolventes etanol e acetato de etila ao CO2 elevou o rendimento de α-bisabolol em até 41 %. Também aumentaram a quantidade de fenólicos totais no óleo e, consequentemente, sua capacidade antioxidante. O fracionamento do óleo por cromatografia em coluna foi eficiente para o isolamento do α-bisabolol. No entanto, diferentemente do óleo da madeira de candeia, este composto não foi efetivo na inibição do crescimento de Staphylococcus aureus. Em relação às cinéticas das extrações supercríticas, o modelo matemático de Sovová se ajustou aos dados experimentais em todas as condições utilizadas.