New concepts and a synthesis of existing theories may assist in studying the relationship between social structure, development and rural development. The concept of social structure encompasses the concept of economic structure which may be analysed in terms of three "Moments" of production. On this basis, one can distinguish between heterogeneous and homogeneous relations of production structures. "Homogeneous relations" together with "system dynamics" and ''reproduction", define the concept of a mode of production. "Development" refers to the expansion of total productive capacity, premissed on advanced means of production, and corresponding to the particular relations and forces of production in an economic system. The capitalist mode of production has both tendencies and countertendencies to development. The latter prevail in the Third World due to the admixture and heterogeneity of production relations there, and to their subordinate articulation within an international capitalist economic system. In this context, underdevelopment is the result of the specific factors of monopoly competition, dependence-extraversion, disarticulation-unevenness, the three-tier structure of the peripheral economy, surplus transfer, and class structures and struggles. Rural development can be understood in terms of the specific contribution of agriculture to development, theorized as the "Agrarian Question". Agrarian capitalism has been slow to develop in the Third World, and the state of agriculture remains a problem there. "Rural development" has emerged as a deliberate and interventionist state strategy designed to restructure agrarian relations for development. This has contributed to the formation of particular heterogeneous relations of production articulated to the capitalist mode. In this context, the character of the associated classes has left the Agrarian Question unresolved. "Rural development" continues because it has an important~ and even primary, political significance - although this is not without contradictions.

Information and Communication Technology for Development (ICT4D) is an emerging research area that is concerned with the beneficial applications of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) to achieve developmental goals. ICT4D is thus concerned with designing and developing innovative technologies for resource-constrained environments for applications in key areas of social development such as health, agriculture and education. The ICT4D initiatives, therefore, are driving three main tasks, namely developing the required infrastructure (connectivity, electricity and computing devices) sustainably, building the required ICT human capacity, and providing access to digital content and services. Each of these three main thrusts necessitates innovation. This study addresses the evident lack of delivery mechanisms to facilitate access to digital content and services to end-users through the technologies that these end-users already possess. This lack of innovative delivery mechanisms is both an impediment to achieving equitable access to digital content and service and an opportunity to innovate. Therefore, drawing from the theoretical background of ICT4D, this study develops a set of technical and socio-technical requirements that the missing delivery mechanisms should satisfy. The study also explores the Service Delivery Platform (SDP) concept as a technically viable basis for the required delivery mechanisms. The study then develops a conceptual model of an Access-Technology-Agnostic Delivery Mechanism as a possible delivery mechanism that facilitates equitable access to digital content and services within an ICT4D context. The relevance of the conceptual model is established and, through a prototype implementation, the technical feasibility and utility of the conceptual model is demonstrated. The conceptual model is demonstrated through a proof of concept implementation using standards-based open source technologies. The proof of concept clearly demonstrates that the access-technology-agnostic delivery of digital content and services is achievable, thus making the same service accessible through different access technologies. In developing the Access-Technology-Agnostic Delivery Mechanism, this study contributes through innovation to providing access to digital content and services in an access-technology-agnostic manner.

Universities in developing countries are deteriorating physically due to lack of planned maintenance, lack of maintenance policies in the institutions, lack of up-to-date security system, and also lack of qualified personnel at decision-making level. Lack of planning leads to reactive maintenance. It also leads to unbudgeted expenditure and has an impact on the amount of money allocated to maintenance which results in unavailability of funds to carry out maintenance duties. Institutions which have no maintenance policy lack guidelines to follow when a maintenance problem arises. Most personnel in charge of maintenance are junior management or at supervisory level as a result they are not part of middle management that strategically directs the organisation. Most of the decisions made at supervisory scale are easily overruled at management level where the maintenance manager is not present during meetings to motivate maintenance cases. Lack of efficient security also allows vandalism to rise which contributes to the deterioration of facilities. Universities lack creativity and cost management skills to raise its own funds to supplement the maintenance budget, which is largely funded by the government. This study recommends employment of built environment professionals in decision-making positions. It also recommends that organizations should have a maintenance policy in place. Investment should be made in good security systems and management of the facilities should include income generating activities that could subsidise the maintenance budget.

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Thesis advisor: Hiroshi Nakazato / Since the start of the Industrial Revolution, the common desire of states has been for constant economic growth. While this aspiration has promoted the flourishing of some societies it has been a detriment to others. With intensified inequality across the globe, the powerful have both inadvertently and knowingly exploited the vulnerable— including people, animals and the planet. Now, that inequality and environmental degradation persist in the collective crisis of climate change. Moving forward, it is critical for nations to acknowledge both their culpability for destruction and their capacity for action amidst this crisis. With differing historical responsibilities, states may have proportionately accountable solutions. This thesis provides both an ethical and a practical framework for addressing both local and global challenges that come with climate change as well as how to mitigate the injustices that are borne of it in thoughtful, multi-faceted and integrated approaches to sustainable development. / Thesis (BA) — Boston College, 2020. / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Departmental Honors. / Discipline: International Studies.

Background: Low- and middle-income countries like South Africa carry the greatest suicide burden, with local general population suicide attempt rates of 2.9–22.7%, in comparison to 0.7–9% in international literature. Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) commonly co-occurs with suicidal behaviours and estimates range from 5.5% internationally to 19.4% in South Africa. As a subgroup of the general population, university students are at higher risk both of suicidal behaviours and NSSI (S/NSSI). Risk factors for S/NSSI include parenting style; however, very little is known about the relationship between parenting styles and S/NSSI in university students in the South African context. Objectives: In this dissertation we set out to perform a literature review relating to explanatory models and risk factors associated with S/NSSI and then proceeded to collect novel data from students at the University of Cape Town. This research study aimed to describe the rates of S/NSSI behaviours and to explore the relationship between the Baumrind parenting style typography and S/NSSI in university students. The study hypothesised that authoritative parenting would negatively correlate with S/NSSI. No a priori hypotheses were made about the other parenting styles investigated. Methods: In chapter 1, we performed a literature review of peer-reviewed publications on Pubmed, Psychinfo via EBSCOHost and MEDLINE via EBSCOHost identified through search terms that were relevant to the focus of the study. In chapter 2 novel data were collected. Students from all faculties at the University of Cape Town were invited to complete an anonymous, online electronic survey. Data collection included a socio-demographic questionnaire, Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire and Self-Harming Behaviours Questionnaire. Descriptive statistics quantified parenting styles, suicidal behaviours and NSSI. Spearman's correlation coefficients examined the association between parenting style and S/NSSI. Results: Literature review provided a topline review of explanatory models and risk factors associated with S/NSSI and identified relevant literature about parenting styles using the Baumrind typology. In the electronic survey of university students, the rate of suicidal attempts was 6.3% and of NSSI was 22.7%. Suicide threats, suicidal thoughts, and thoughts of dying were reported by 5.9%, 35.7% and 50.7% respectively. No significant differences were seen between male and female students. We observed no significant association between authoritative parenting and suicidal behaviours, but authoritative mothers and fathers were significantly associated with a history of NSSI. Both permissive mothers and fathers were associated with suicide attempts, threats, and thoughts, whereas only permissive mothers were associated with NSSI. Conclusion: This study replicated previously reported high rates of S/NSSI in South African university students in comparison to general population and international data. Contrary to our hypothesis, authoritative parenting style was positively correlated with NSSI, but not with suicidal behaviours. Further studies are warranted to examine parenting style, and permissive parenting, in particular, in relation to S/NSSI

Thesis: M.S., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Political Science, 1977 / Bibliography : leaves 239-252. / M.S. / M.S. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Political Science

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