Protein-protein interaction dominates all major biology processes in living cells. Recent studies suggestthat the surface expression and activity of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), which are the largestfamily of receptors in human cells, can be modulated by receptor activity–modifying proteins (RAMPs). Computational tools are essential to complement experimental approaches for the understanding ofmolecular activity of living cells and molecular dynamics simulations are well suited to providemolecular details of proteins function and structure. The classical atom-level molecular modeling ofbiological systems is limited to small systems and short time scales. Therefore, its application iscomplicated for systems such as protein-protein interaction in cell-surface membrane. For this reason, coarse-grained (CG) models have become widely used and they represent an importantstep in the study of large biomolecular systems. CG models are computationally more effective becausethey simplify the complexity of the protein structure allowing simulations to have longer timescales. The aim of this degree project was to determine if the applications of coarse-grained molecularsimulations were suitable for the understanding of the dynamics and structural basis of the GPCRRAMP interactions in a membrane environment. Results indicate that the study of protein-proteininteractions using CG needs further improvement with a more accurate parameterization that will allowthe study of complex systems.

Flies are a widely distributed pest insect that poses a significant threat to food security. Flight is essential for the dispersal of the adult flies to find new food sources and ideal breeding spots. The supply of metabolic fuel to power the flight muscles of insects is regulated by adipokinetic hormones (AKHs). The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, the flesh fly, Sarcophaga crassipalpis, and the oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis all have the same AKH that is present in the blowfly, Phormia terraenovae; this AKH has the code-name Phote-HrTH. Binding of the AKH to the extracellular binding site of a G protein-coupled receptor causes its activation. In this thesis, the structure of Phote-HrTH in SDS micelle solution was determined using NMR restrained molecular dynamics. The peptide was found to bind to the micelle and be reasonably rigid, with an S 2 order parameter of 0.96. The translated protein sequence of the AKH receptor from the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, the flesh fly, Sarcophaga crassipalpis, and the oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis were used to construct two models for each receptor: Drome-AKHR, Sarcr-AKHR, and Bacdo-AKHR. It is proposed that these two models represent the active and inactive state of the receptor. The models based on the crystal structure of the β-2 adrenergic receptor were found to bind Phote-HrTH with a predicted binding free energy of –107 kJ mol–1 for Drome-AKHR, –102 kJ mol–1 for Sarcr-AKHR and –102 kJ mol–1 for Bacdo-AKHR. Under molecular dynamics simulation, in a POPC membrane, the β-2AR receptor-like complexes transformed to rhodopsin-like. The identification and characterisation of the ligand-binding site of each receptor provide novel information on ligand-receptor interactions, which could lead to the development of species-specific control substances to use discriminately against these pest flies.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(農学) / 甲第19048号 / 農博第2126号 / 新制||農||1032(附属図書館) / 学位論文||H27||N4930(農学部図書室) / 31999 / 京都大学大学院農学研究科応用生命科学専攻 / (主査)教授 植田 充美, 教授 植田 和光, 教授 小川 順 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Agricultural Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

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Introduction Adhesion GPCRs (aGPCRs) constitute the second largest family of the GPCR superfamily, and yet their properties are also the least understood. Growing research on the biological functions of aGPCRs suggest their implications in various (patho)physiological processes, such as cell migration, organ development and cancers. Moreover, due to the unique architecture of a large extracellular region (ECR) containing a plethora of adhesion motifs, aGPCRs are vital as a mechanosensor which transduces extracellular mechanical stimuli into intracellular signal transduction. One distinct feature of aGPCRs among the GPCR superfamily is the possession of a conserved extracellular fold termed GPCR autoproteolysis-inducing (GAIN) domain in perhaps all members within the class. The cleavage at the last loop of the GAIN domain leads to the formation of two non-covalently associated N- and C-terminal fragments (NTF/CTF). A peptide stretch in the start of the CTF acts as a tethered agonist (TA) which is responsible for at least part of the signaling volumes of an activated receptor. Despite the strict conservation of the GAIN domain and its importance in the activation mechanism of aGPCRs, some other fundamental properties of the receptors, with reference to GAIN domain cleavage, have not been rigorously analysed in a biological context. Thus, this study aims to: 1. Explore the structural and molecular determinants that affects GAIN domain cleavage; 2. Investigate the consequences of GAIN domain cleavage towards (i) surface trafficking, and (ii) phosphorylation of receptors. Results Abolishment of GAIN domain cleavage in Polycystin-1, the only other protein family possessing the GAIN domain, was found to eliminate its surface expression, which is a cause of polycystic kidney/liver disease. However, whether such relationship is also true for aGPCRs has not been systematically analysed. Therefore, the study started with profiling the kinetics of surface delivery of several members of aGPCRs. Mutations on the -2 or +1 residues of the GPCR proteolytic site (GPS) (thereby abolishing GAIN domain cleavage) affected the steady-state surface and total expressions of the receptors differently, and had variable effect towards different receptor members. However, the observations from steady-state kinetics are also a resultant output from numerous processes involved in proteostasis. To further dissect whether GPS mutations affect the surface trafficking of the receptors, a pulse-chase assay called the ‘Retention Upon Selective Hook’ (RUSH) assay was employed, wherein the synthesised receptor molecules conjugated to a streptavidin-binding peptide are withheld in the ER by the co-expressed, ER-resident streptavidin, and are only released upon the addition of biotin that outcompete the receptor-streptavidin binding, creating a synchronised transport. By adapting the RUSH assay on some aGPCR members, the attenuation of surface trafficking by GPS mutations has become more apparent. The tested receptors were found to have a deficit in the quantity of surface population, rather than a change in rate of trafficking, upon the introduction of GPS mutations. This implies that the cells may utilise GAIN domain cleavage as a quality checkpoint for ER exit of aGPCRs. As the GAIN domains of at least some aGPCRs were found to be cleaved before ER exit, and as the rate of surface delivery was generally not affected by GAIN domain cleavage, the influence of GAIN domain cleavage may arise earlier during the receptor maturation in the ER. However, while the mechanisms of GAIN domain cleavage have been elucidated previously, they rely heavily on purified domains. The fundamental questions of when exactly the GAIN domain is cleaved and what additional determinants apart from the GPS sequence contribute to GAIN domain cleavage during receptor biogenesis have still not been answered. In combination with molecular dynamics (MD) simulation studies on the GAIN domain of rat isoform of ADGRL1, F803 was found to be crucial in the proteolysis by forming an edge-π interaction with H836 (-2 position of the cleavage site), such that H836 is in close proximity to the hydroxyl group of T838 for the initiation of the nucleophilic attack. Reconstruction of the edge-π interaction into ADGRB3, a naturally uncleavable receptor, partially reinstates its GAIN domain cleavage; but similar reintroduction on ADGRB2 has no effect on restoring the proteolysis. Nonetheless, this observation highlights the vitality of a proper folding of the GAIN domain, specifically the microenvironment of the cleavage site, in assisting in cleavage. The study continued with a systematic series of experiments that ultimately discover the roles of the CTF towards GAIN domain cleavage of aGPCRs. Firstly, to mimic the biogenesis of the receptor, the seven transmembrane (7TM) region of ADGRE2 (E2) was stepwisely truncated and then analysed for GAIN domain cleavage. It was observed that the extent of GAIN domain cleavage increases when the ECR of E2 precedes with more number of TMs. The proteolysis occurs, although less efficiently, as early as the first TM is synthesised. Interestingly, GAIN domain cleavage is unaffected when the TM region of the E2-1TM mutant was replaced by other single-pass TM, and whether it is trafficked to the surface or held in the ER, while the proteolysis of TM-less ECR mutants is largely impeded. Based on this observation, the ECR and the TM region was spaced either by a fluorophore moiety or a variable number of helical turns. Remarkably, the extent of GAIN domain cleavage of all tested receptors declined upon the increase in displacement with the lumenal side of the ER membrane, defining the importance of membrane proximity in the completion of proteolysis during the maturation of GAIN domain. In that, a new model of GAIN domain cleavage during biogenesis has been proposed, with appreciation of the GAIN domain as part of a higher-order stuctural organisation rather than an independent domain. A physiological extent of GAIN domain cleavage does not only require the folding of the GAIN domain, but also the membrane tethering property of the CTF, allowing a partial cleavage as little as one TM is generated, and a dynamic stability provided by the full CTF. In some aGPCRs, the contributions from CTF are more significant than the autonomous GAIN domain folding. The findings implicate more complex requirements for GAIN domain cleavage in a biological context, and hence supporting a possibility that GAIN domain cleavage is the rate-determining step for ER exit of the receptor, leading to the observations obtained in the kinetic study. Phosphorylation of L3 by PKC activated by distant signaling cascade(s) The last part of the study focused on characterising the mechanism of phosphorylation of ADGRL3 (L3) at Thr1140 (pT1140), which is a poorly explored field of aGPCRs. It was made possible by exploiting a phosphospecific antibody developed in collaboration. Coincidently, pT1140 was not dependent on the examined GPCR properties of the receptor, such as G protein coupling, dependence of the TA, and GRK-mediated phosphorylation. Instead, by series of pharmacological inhibitions, it was discovered that pT1140 originates from the action of novel PKCs (nPKCs). Co-expression of L3 and dominant-negative mutants or the catalytic domains of individual members of nPKCs reveals that PKC acts as a master regulator of the phosphorylation event, by directly phosphorylating the receptor and priming other members of the nPKCs for pT1140. Finally, possible origins of the PKC activation were explored. It was found that the stimulation of PKC occurs via actin disassembly, which can act downstreams of VEGF-A/VEGFR2 signaling, although the physiological relevance is still yet to be deciphered. Nonetheless, the observations opened up new directions of research in the aspect of crosstalks between different signaling cascades and the possible modulations of the signaling fidelity of aGPCRs. Additionally, the complexity of aGPCR signaling has been clearly demonstrated. Conclusion This study has further defined the importance of GAIN domain cleavage for surface trafficking of aGPCRs, a process crucial for extracellular interactions. Moreover, a novel mechanistic model of GAIN domain cleavage in relevance to biogenesis and maturation of the receptors has been postulated. Characterisation of a site-specific phosphorylation mechanism of L3 has illustrated the potential of complex interactions of aGPCRs with other signaling pathways in cells. The results collectively shed light on the structure-function relationship of aGPCRs, and pave ways for numerous potential areas for explorations in the future.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) play a major role in physiological functions by transducing extracellular information into intracellular responses, thereby, allowing auto-, para , and endocrine communication. In combination with their ubiquitous expression, GPCRs are of special interest for developing therapeutic approaches. Due to their high targetability, GPCRs are also interesting for obesity research. Even though the prevalence for obesity and its comorbidities like type 2 diabetes mellitus is rapidly rising worldwide, the physiological function of many GPCRs is not well resolved in adipose tissue (AT). Here, the high percentage of orphan GPCRs (65 %), meaning GPCRs characterized by lacking information about an endogenous ligand, signal transduction and/or physiological functions, is an enormous restricting factor to understand AT (patho)physiology. In this study the overall goal was the identification and characterization of GPCRs hitherto unrecognized in AT and adipocyte functionality. Therefore, the first part of this study focused on incorporating a web application for the analysis of publicly available RNA-seq data of human and mouse AT and adipocytes, called FATTLAS. With this application, the GPCRome was analysed to identify GPCRs connected to AT function. Furthermore, those GPCRs were characterized in 3T3-L1, a murine preadipocyte cell line with adipogenic potential. Following, the main results are described: 1. Analysing the GPCR expression patterns in AT of lean individuals and individuals with obesity lead to the identification of a multitude of highly and differentially expressed genes, many of them being already characterized in AT or adipocyte function. Nevertheless, four GPCRs were identified being either highly expressed in both conditions (Gpr146) or differentially expressed in individuals with obesity (Fzd5, Mrgprf, and Ptger2) having an unknown function in AT. For all four receptors an agonist has been previously described. 2. Besides expression in AT, all four receptors are also present in primary and 3T3-L1 (pre)adipocytes. Thus, GPR146, FZD5, MRGPRF, and PTGER2 are suitable for characterizing their role in adipocyte function. 3. Investigating receptor overexpression in the heterologous expression system HEK293T, FZD5, MRGPRF and PTGER2 were found to be expressed at the cell surface, whereas GPR146 was mainly located in endosomes. 4. While analysing receptor signalling in HEK293T cells high basal receptor activity was detected for PTGER2 (Gɑs protein) and GPR146 (Gɑi protein). As the published agonists could not induce receptor activation in 3T3-L1 (pre)adipocytes, siRNA-mediated knockdown was the method of choice for the characterization of endogenously expressed receptors in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. 5. Receptor knockdown analysis for these four receptors revealed a reduced adipogenesis acting via the PPARγ axis. Here, MRGPRF and PTGER2 act via a cAMP-dependent mechanism. Furthermore, the receptors are involved in preadipocyte viability, which also contribute to the regulation of adipogenesis. As the receptor knockdown in preadipocytes leads to a reduced viability and adipogenesis, adipocyte function was analysed after knockdown in adipocytes. 6. Before the investigation of adipocyte function, the effect of receptor knockdown in mature adipocytes on adipocyte viability was analysed with only Mrgprf knockdown showing an effect. 7. In adipocyte function, MRGPRF was involved in adiponectin secretion most likely by changing intracellular cAMP accumulation. Moreover, GPR146 regulates lipolysis via basal Gɑi-protein signalling. PTGER2 and FZD5 did not show an involvement in the analysed adipocyte functionalities. Taken together, in this study an interactive public database (FATTLAS) was implemented, incorporating publicly available RNA-seq data for AT and adipocytes for improved access and analysis of these complex datasets. Using this database, four hitherto unrecognized GPCRs were identified and their involvement in adipogenesis and AT function was proved. In the second part of this thesis, the subgroup adhesion GPCRs (aGPCRs) of the GPCRome, were analysed. Genome-wide association studies have linked this orphan GPCR class to AT function and metabolic dysfunction (e.g. obesity). However, they have not been thoroughly investigated yet. By performing a comprehensive study, the following main findings about aGPCR expression in AT and adipocytes and about their role in adipogenesis and adipocyte function were revealed: 1. In mice 30 aGPCRs are genomically encoded. 25 receptors were identified to be expressed in subcutaneous AT (scAT), 28 in visceral AT (vAT). Only Emr4, Gpr133 and Gpr116 showed a differential expression between scAT and vAT. 2. Under high-fat diet seven receptors (Lphn1-3, Eltd1, Emr1, Gpr124, Gpr116, and Gpr56) were significantly higher expressed in scAT, whereas in vAT three receptors were upregulated (Emr4, Gpr124, and Celsr3) and four downregulated (Gpr113, Gpr116, Gpr64, and Gpr97). 3. As AT consists of diverse cell types, cell-specific expression of aGPCRs in adipocytes and the stroma vascular fraction (SVF) was determined. Here, four receptors were significantly higher expressed in adipocytes (Lphn2, Gpr125, Gpr111, and Gpr64), six receptors were lower expressed (Emr1, Emr4, Gpr133, Gpr113, and Gpr97, Gpr126). However, most aGPCRs are expressed in adipocytes making them interesting for investigating their role in adipocyte function. 4. In human scAT CELSR1, CELSR2, EMR2, and GPR126 were upregulated comparing lean and obese conditions, GPR64 and GPR97 were downregulated. The expression of aGPCRs in human scAT was comparable to mouse scAT indicating a transferability of aGPCR function in mouse and human samples. 5. Analysing aGPCR expression during adipogenesis in 3T3-L1, three distinct expression patterns were found: no changes (Lphn1-3, Cd97, Gpr124, Gpr125, Gpr116, Gpr56, Gpr64, Gpr97, and Gpr126), steady upregulation (Gpr124 and Gpr126), and downregulation (Cd97, Gpr116, Gpr56, and Gpr64). 6. Knockdown of Lphn2, Gpr124, Gpr125, Gpr116, Gpr64, and Gpr126 in 3T3-L1 lead to a reduced lipid accumulation and droplet size indicating an impaired differentiation into mature adipocytes. 7. Exemplarily, GPR64 was selected to study the role of aGPCRs in adipocyte function due to its significantly reduced expression in obesity and its role in adipogenesis. Knockdown and stimulation by a tethered agonist-derived peptide uncovered Gαs protein-mediated signalling. Furthermore, peptide stimulation resulted in a reduced adiponectin secretion and glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Lipolysis was induced in 3T3-L1 and primary adipocytes after peptide stimulation indicating a transferability of cell culture experiments to ex vivo analysis. In summary, this comprehensive study describes aGPCR expression in human and mouse AT, adipocytes and SVF in depth. Furthermore, their involvement in adipogenesis under physiological and knockdown conditions was studied in the model cell line 3T3-L1. The functional role of aGPCRs was exemplarily analysed for GPR64. As the model cell line 3T3-L1 is difficult to transfect and knockdown only reduces gene expression, the suitability of CRISPR/Cas technology for generating a receptor knockout (KO) in 3T3-L1 cell line was tested. For validation, the aGPCRs, Gpr64 and Gpr126, were chosen. The main results of the third part of this study are the following: 1. Gpr64- and Gpr126 KO cells were generated using a commercially avaible 3T3-L1 cell line constitutively overexpressing Cas9 (3T3-L1 Cas9). 2. An impaired adipogenesis and adipocyte function was found already in 3T3-L1 Cas9 compared to 3T3-L1 wildtype. Creating a self-made Cas9-overexpressing 3T3-L1 was not feasible. Thus, Cas9-overexpressing 3T3-L1 cells are not suitable for analysing adipocyte function after KO. 3. Evaluating other approaches for CRISPR/Cas9-mediated KO strategies, transient overexpression of Cas9 using plasmid-based methods were not feasible, too. However, introducing Cas9 protein was successful and did not interfere with adipogenesis making this approach the method of choice for CRISPR/Cas9-mediated KO in 3T3-L1. In brief, KO studies in 3T3-L1 cell line using CRISPR/Cas technology should not be carried out using plasmid-based approaches. However, transfecting the Cas9 protein or its ribonucleoprotein complex is feasible to create 3T3-L1 KO cell lines without interfering with adipogenesis and adipocyte function. In conclusion, this thesis provides a comprehensive study about GPCR expression in AT of lean individuals and individuals with obesity. The identification and characterization of GPCRs hitherto unrecognized in AT or even orphan GPCRs supports the understanding of AT (patho)physiology. In particular, the expression of all GPCRs in AT of lean individuals and individuals with obesity was uncovered for human scAT as well as mouse scAT and vAT. Furthermore, three rhodopsin-like GPCRs (GPR146, MRGPRF, and PTGER2), one Fzd-like receptor (FZD5) and the adhesion GPCR class were basally characterized regarding adipogenesis and (pre)adipocyte functionality using the model cell line 3T3-L1. These data are fundamental for understanding the importance of the whole repertoire of GPCR in AT (patho)physiology and can be used as a starting point for their characterization in AT and adipocyte function in depth, possibly even leading to novel therapeutic approaches in the future.

Les récepteurs couplés aux protéines G (RCPG) constituent la plus grande famille de récepteurs transmembranaires. Ils sont impliqués dans une large variété de processus physiologiques et par conséquent ils représentent une cible thérapeutique d'intérêt pour le développement de médicaments. Plusieurs études ont démontré que les RCPGs sont capables d'interagir entre eux pour former des complexes oligomériques. Cependant, leur existence in vivo et leur rôle fonctionnel reste sujet à débats. Afin de mieux appréhender ce phénomène, nous avons utilisé un RCPG de classe C comme modèle d'étude, le récepteur de l'acide γ-aminobutyrique (GABAB), qui est impliqué dans une grande variété de désordres neurologiques et psychiatriques. Son originalité réside dans le fait qu'il est un hétérodimère obligatoire composé de deux sous-unités : GABAB1 et GABAB2 (GB1 et GB2). La liaison de l'agoniste sur GB1 conduit à l'activation de GB2. Au cours de ma thèse, nous avons montré en utilisant une nouvelle approche biophysique basée sur un marquage fluorescent enzymatique appelé Snap-tag que, contrairement aux récepteurs métabotropiques du glutamate, le récepteur GABAB forme des dimères de dimères (tétramères). Cette organisation hétéro-oligomérique est assurée par des contacts stables entre les domaines extracellulaires des sous-unités GB1. De plus, nous avons apporté des données en faveur de l'existence physiologique de cet assemblage en utilisant des membranes de cerveau de rat et de souris. Dans une seconde partie, nous avons souhaité déterminer les conséquences fonctionnelles de cette organisation. Nos résultats suggèrent une efficacité de couplage à la protéine G réduite du récepteur GABAB lorsqu'il est associé en dimères de dimères. Collectivement, nos données rapportent pour la première fois, l'existence de larges complexes allostériques de RCPGs dans le cerveau. / The G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR) constitute the main family of transmembrane receptors. They are involved in many physiological processes and, as a consequence, they represent a therapeutic target of interest for the development of new drugs. Few studies have demonstrated that GPCRs are able to interact with each other to form oligomeric complexes. However, the existence in vivo and the functional interest of these oligomers remain a subject of intense debates. To address this issue, we have used a class C GPCR as a model, the γ-aminobutyrate B receptor (GABAB), which is involved in a wide variety of neurological and psychiatric disorders. This receptor has the particularity to be an obligatory heterodimer composed of two subunits GABAB1 and GABAB2 (GB1 and GB2). Agonist binding on GB1 leads to G-protein activation by GB2. During my thesis, we developed a new biophysical approach based on an enzyme-mediated fluorescent labeling calle d Snap-Tag and showed that, unlike metabotropic glutamate receptors, GABAB forms dimers of dimers (tetramers). This oligo-heterodimers organization is mediated via stable contacts between extracellular domains of GB1 subunits. Furthermore, we brought evidence of the physiological reality of this assembly using rat and mouse brain membranes. Then, we aimed at assessing what would be the functional rational of the GABAB dimer of heterodimers. Our results suggest that the GABAB receptor has a lower G protein-coupling efficacy when associated into dimers of dimers. Altogether, our data report for the first time, the existence of large allosteric GPCR complexes in the brain.

Plusieurs cibles thérapeutiques dans le développement de médicaments contre l’obésité visent une diminution de l’appétit et de la masse adipeuse et à augmenter la dépense énergétique. L’appétit et le métabolisme énergétique sont régulés par certains neuropeptides qui agissent au niveau du système nerveux central, notamment dans l’hypothalamus. Parmi ces neuropeptides, les peptides RF-amide ou QRFP (pyroglutamylated RF-amide peptides), ainsi nommés par la présence du motif conservé Arg-Phe-NH2 dans le domaine C-terminal, induisent une hyperphagie et une augmentation de la masse adipeuse lorsqu’administrés par voie centrale. Les formes bioactives de ces peptides comprennent principalement 43 (QRFP-43) et 26 (QRFP-26) acides aminés. Outre les peptides QRFP, leurs récepteurs, les GPR103 de la famille des récepteurs à 7 passages transmembranaires couplés aux protéines G, sont exprimés dans l’hypothalamus. Plus récemment, des études ont montré la sécrétion de ces neuropeptides, et la présence du GPR103, dans le tissu adipeux. Cependant, le rôle de la voie signalétique (QRFP/GPR103) dans la régulation du métabolisme lipidique au niveau périphérique est peu connu. Les travaux de cette thèse ont porté sur la caractérisation des effets adipogéniques périphériques des neuropeptides QRFP. En premier lieu, nos travaux ont montré que les adipocytes 3T3-L1 et les adipocytes murins isolés des dépôts adipeux blancs expriment le prépro-QRFP et uniquement le récepteur GPR103B, un des deux sous-types de récepteurs présents chez la souris. De plus, nous avons montré que l’expression du récepteur est régulée par une diète riche en lipides réduisant l’expression du prépro-QRFP, mais augmentant celle du GPR103B dans les dépôts lipidiques. Chez l’humain, les adipocytes de l’omentum expriment autant le GPR103 que le prépro-QRFP. Nous avons de plus étudié la fonctionnalité du GPR103B dans les adipocytes 3T3-L1 par l’utilisation d’ARN interférents. Nous avons observé que ce récepteur médie les effets adipogéniques des QRFPs en augmentant l’expression du récepteur nucléaire PPAR-gamma (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma) et le facteur de transcription C/EBP-alpha (CCAAT-enhancer binding protein alpha) résultant en une accumulation des triglycérides. Nous avons aussi mis en évidence les effets anti-lipolytiques des QRFPs. En effet, les QRFP inhibent fortement la lipolyse induite avec l’isoprotérénol. L’étude des mécanismes moléculaires à l’origine des effets anti-lipolytiques du QRFP-43 a montré l’activation de la voie de signalisation PI3-K/PKB (phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protéine kinase B) en réponse à la stimulation du GPR103B. La réponse anti-lipolytique induite par le QRFP-43 est associée à une diminution de la phosphorylation de la périlipine A (PLIN1a) et de la lipase hormono-sensible (HSL). Nos études ont élucidé les mécanismes conduisant à l’inhibition de la phosphorylation de la PLIN1a en réponse à l’activation du GPR103B, impliquant l’inhibition de la migration de la cavéoline 1 et de la sous unité catalytique de la protéine kinase A (PKA) au niveau des gouttelettes lipidiques, ainsi que l’inhibition de l’activité des Src kinases et de la protéine kinase C (PKC). En conclusion, nos travaux ont montré que les QRFP-43 et -26 exercent un effet adipogénique et anti-lipolytique dans les adipocytes, mettant ainsi en évidence le rôle des neuropeptides QRFPs dans la régulation du métabolisme lipidique au niveau adipocytaire. / Anti-obesity therapies mostly focused on development of centrally-acting drugs, which also promote weight loss properties. Many studies have documented the relevance of neuroendocrine peptides in the hypothalamus and their influence on the regulation of energy balance. Some neuropeptides have been reported to be expressed and secreted by the adipose tissue where they modulate lipid metabolism, reflecting the importance between hypothalamus and adipose tissue. Among neuropeptides that regulate appetite, QRFP (pyroglutamylated RF-amide peptides) was reported to have hyperphagic properties associated with an increase of adipose mass over lean mass in mice. Both QRFP and its receptor GPR103 are expressed in the hypothalamus of many spices. However, whether QRFP peptides and its receptor are involved in peripheral lipid metabolism is still unknown. This thesis focused on the peripheral effects of QRFP and the role of its receptor on adipose tissue. The results presented here show that QRFP-43 and -26 have direct adipogenic effects on both 3T3-L1 adipocytes and isolated adipocytes from white adipose tissue (WAT). Indeed, we found that prepro-QRFP and the GPR103B receptor, which is one of the two GPR103 sub-types found in mice, are expressed in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and in WAT isolated adipocytes. When mice are fed with high-fat diet, prepro-QRFP expression was reduced whilst GPR103B was increased in different WAT. In human omental adipocytes, both prepro-QRFP and GPR103 are expressed. QRFP treatment on 3T3-L1 adipocytes inhibits isoproterenol (ISO) induced-lipolysis and promotes adipognesis trought fatty acid uptake and expression of key adipogenic transcription factors, PPAR-gamma (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma) and C/EBP-alpha (CCAAT-enhancer binding protein alpha). The functionality of the GPR103B receptor was studied using short hairpin RNA to knock down its expression in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Knockdown of GPR103B resulted in complete loss of QRFP peptides antilipolytic effects and fatty acid uptake. GPR103B signaling pathways in antilipolytic effects of QRFP-43 were investigated using 3T3-L1 adipocytes model. Stimulation of GRP103B induced PI3-K/PKB (phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B) pathway. QRFP-43 attenuates lipolysis by inhibiting ISO induced-phosphorylation of perilipin A (PLIN1a) and hormone sensitive lipase (HSL). Moreover, we have underscored the mechanisms of GPR103B mediating inhibition of PLIN1a in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Activation of GPR103B prevents the translocation of caveolin 1 and the catalytic subunit of PKA induced by ISO on lipid droplets. This latter mechanism is the result of the inhibition of Src kinases and PKC induced by ISO following QRFP-43 treatment in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. In conclusion, the work conducted in this thesis demonstrates a new role of QRFP peptides and the receptor GPR103B as modulator of lipid metabolism in adipose tissue. We have also underscored GPR103B signaling pathways leading to inhibition of lipolysis in adipocytes.

Os receptores medeiam a maioria das respostas fisiológicas em resposta a diversidade de estímulos. A ativação da sinalização mediada pelo receptor de angiotensina II tipo 1 é o principal responsável pelos efeitos do hormônio angiotensina II (Ang II) nos tecidos alvo. No rim concentrações fisiológicas de Ang II aumentam a atividade no túbulo proximal da isoforma 3 do trocador de Na+/H+ (NHE3). Este efeito é crucial para a manutenção do volume extracelular e pressão arterial. Evidências recentes mostraram que a ativação seletiva da sinalização enviesada da beta-arrestina/ receptor AT1 induz diurese e natriurese independentemente da sinalização via proteína G. Neste estudo testamos a hipótese de que a sinalização enviesada do receptor AT1/ beta-arrestina inibe a atividade do NHE3 no túbulo proximal, bem como investigar os possíveis mecanismos moleculares que medeio este efeito. Para tal, nós determinamos os efeitos do composto TRV120023, que se liga ao receptor AT1, bloqueando o acoplamento da proteína G e estimulando a sinalização da beta-arrestina, na função do NHE3 in vivo e in vitro. A atividade do NHE3 foi medida quer em túbulo proximal nativo, por meio de microperfusão estacionária, bem como em uma linha celular de túbulo proximal de gamba (OKP), por meio de recuperação de pH intracelular dependente de Na+. Os nossos resultados mostram que o TRV120023 na concentração de 10-7 M inibe marcadamente a atividade do NHE3 em túbulo proximal quer in vivo quer in vitro, sendo que este efeito é completamente abolido nas células silenciadas para a beta-arrestina 1 e 2 através de RNA de interferência. Adicionalmente, a estimulação do NHE3 pela Ang II é completamente suprimida pelo TRV120023 quer in vivo quer in vitro. A inibição do NHE3 pelo TRV120023 foi associada com a diminuição do NHE3 expresso na superfície da membrana plasmática em células OKP e com a redistribuição entre o corpo e a base das microvilosidades em túbulo proximal de rato. A diminuição do NHE3 na superfície da membrana plasmática em células OKP estava associado com um aumento na internalização do NHE via endocitose mediada por clatrina. A inibição do NHE3 mediada pela beta-arrestina não envolve a sinalização do receptor AT2, cAMP/ PKA, Akt e ERK1/2. Estes achados indicam que a sinalização enviesada do receptor AT1/beta-arretina inibe a atividade do NHE3 em túbulo proximal, pelo menos em parte, devido a alterações na localização subcelular do NHE3 / Cell surface receptors mediate most of our physiological responses to an array of stimulus. The triggering of the angiotensin II type I (AT1) receptor signaling is the major control point in the regulation of the ultimate effects of the peptide hormone angiotensin II (Ang II) on its target tissue. In the kidney physiological concentrations of Ang II upregulate the activity of proximal tubule Na+/H+ exchanger isoform 3 (NHE3). This effect is crucial for maintenance of extracellular fluid volume homeostasis and blood pressure. Recent findings have shown that selective activation of the betaarrestin-biased AT1 receptor signalingpathway induces diuresis and natriuresis independent of G-protein mediated signaling. This study tested the hypothesis that activation of this AT1 receptor/beta-arrestin signaling inhibits NHE3 activity in proximal tubule as well as investigate the underlying molecular mechanisms mediating this effect. To this end, we determined the effects of the compound TRV120023, which binds to the AT1R, blocks G protein coupling, and stimulates beta-arrestin signaling, on NHE3 function in vivo and in vitro. NHE3 activity was measured in both native proximal tubules, by stationary microperfusion, and in opossum proximal tubule (OKP) cells, by Na+-dependent intracellular pH recovery. Our results showed that 10-7 MTRV120023 remarkably inhibited proximal tubule NHE3 activity both in vivo and in vitro, and the effect was completely abolished in OKP cells silenced for beta-arrestin 1 and 2 by small interference RNA. Additionally, stimulation of NHE3 by Ang II was completely suppressed by TRV120023 both in vivo as well as in vitro. Inhibition of NHE3 activity by TRV120023 was associated with a decrease in NHE3 surface expression in OKP cells and with a redistribution from the body to the base of the microvilli in the rat proximal tubule. The decreased surface NHE3 in OKP cells was associated with an increase in NHE3 internalization via clathrin mediated endocytic. Beta-arrestin mediated NHE3 inhibition did not involve AT2 receptor, cAMP/ PKA, Akt and ERK1/2 signaling. These findings indicate that biased signaling of the AT1 receptor/beta-arrestin pathway inhibits NHE3 activity in the proximal tubule at least in part due to changes in NHE3 subcellular localization

3BP2 is a pleckstrin homology (PH) domain- and Src homology 2 (SH2) domain-containing adapter protein that has been linked through genetic evidence to a rare human disease called cherubism 146. 3BP2 was originally cloned in a screen to identify c-Abl SH3 binding proteins 23,24. In overexpression studies, 3BP2 has been implicated as a positive regulatory adapter molecule coupled to immunoreceptor on T cells 67,69,70, B cells 68, NK cells 71-73 and mast cells 74,75. It was also evident that 3BP2 forms complexes with a number of signaling molecules, such as Zap-70, LAT, phospholipase C-γ1 (PLC-γ1), Grb2, Cbl, and Fyn in Jurkat cells 67 and Vav1, Vav2, PLC-γ, and Syk in Daudi B cells 68. Despite the growing body of biochemical data to support the importance of 3BP2 in cells of the hematopoietic lineage, a clear picture of the biological function of 3BP2 has yet to emerge. To elucidate the in vivo function of 3BP2, our laboratory has generated 3BP2 gene-deficient mice through homologous recombination 452. The 3BP2-deficient (3BP2-/-) mice were born at the expected Mendelian frequency and were fertile and viable. 3BP2-/- mice accumulate splenic marginal-zone (MZ) B cells, possess a reduced frequency of peritoneal B-1 B cells, and have a diminished thymus-independent type 2 (TI-2) antigen response. 3BP2-/- B cells demonstrate diminished proliferation and cell survival following cross-linking of the B-cell receptor (BCR). Following BCR ligation, 3BP2 might be recruited to BCR complex through its inducible interaction with BCR costimulatory molecule CD19. In the absence of 3BP2, the activation of BCR downstream effectors such as MAPK Erk1/2, JNK, and c-Abl is normal; however, 3BP2 deficiency leads to defects in Syk phosphorylation and calcium flux. In addition to defects in peripheral B cell activities, 3BP2 deficiency contributes to defects in neutrophil activities. In response to the chemotactic peptide, fMLF, 3BP2-/- neutrophils fail to establish directional migration in vitro. There is a defect in the accumulation of filamentous actin at the leading edge of migrating 3BP2-/- neutrophils which might be responsible for the random movement of these cells under shallow gradient of fMLF. In vivo, there is a delay in the recruitment of circulating neutrophils to the site of chemically induced inflammation in 3BP2-/- mice. Compared to wildtype neutrophils, 3BP2-/- neutrophils fail to properly produce superoxide anion (O2-) following fMLF stimulation. Defects in both directional migration and superoxide production of 3BP2-/- neutrophils might contribute to the reduction in bacteria clearance and the increased mortality in 3BP2-/- mice post Listeria Monocytogenes infection. In Chapter 1 of this thesis, I have reviewed basic structures and functions of the domain modules found in adapter proteins. In addition, I have reviewed the findings from numerous reports on the function of 3BP2 in different cell types. A discussion of the physical appearance and some of the initial characterization of 3BP2-deficient mice (3BP2-/-) we have generated in our laboratory are included in Chapter 1. The second part of Chapter 1 consists of an introduction on B cell receptor signaling pathway and B-cell development and activation. A discussion of G protein-coupled receptor-mediated neutrophil functions can also be found in Chapter 1. Chapter 2 contains all the methods and materials used in my study. Chapter 3 includes the characterization of peripheral B cell compartment of 3BP2-/- mice as well as the role of 3BP2 downstream of B-cell antigen receptor and in T-independent immune response. In chapter 4, I present data from experiments designed to examine the role of 3BP2 downstream of a G protein-coupled receptor, fMLF receptor, of neutrophils. I also show the requirement of 3BP2 in the clearance of Listeria Monocytogenes. In chapter 5, I propose two models for 3BP2 action based on the findings in B cells and neutrophils and discuss future areas for investigation.