The thermodynamic properties of bioactive peptides determine how they interact with cellular assemblies. Ultrasonic velocity and density measurements were used to analyse the volumetric properties in aqueous solution of 3 different materials: KCl, bioactive peptides (from hemp seed and dairy proteins), and liposomes (cell membrane models), as well as the interaction between peptides and liposomes. Serial dilutions of the three different materials showed linear relationships between density and concentration and between ultrasonic velocity and concentration. The apparent specific volume and apparent specific compressibility in solution of all materials showed concentration dependence as a result of increased electrostriction as solutions were diluted. The experimental ultrasonic velocities of liposome-dairy peptide mixes were higher than the theoretical additive value, due to interactions between liposomes and peptides. My research demonstrates the benefits of precise volumetric assessments in biological assays.

The thermodynamic properties of bioactive peptides determine how they interact with cellular assemblies. Ultrasonic velocity and density measurements were used to analyse the volumetric properties in aqueous solution of 3 different materials: KCl, bioactive peptides (from hemp seed and dairy proteins), and liposomes (cell membrane models), as well as the interaction between peptides and liposomes. Serial dilutions of the three different materials showed linear relationships between density and concentration and between ultrasonic velocity and concentration. The apparent specific volume and apparent specific compressibility in solution of all materials showed concentration dependence as a result of increased electrostriction as solutions were diluted. The experimental ultrasonic velocities of liposome-dairy peptide mixes were higher than the theoretical additive value, due to interactions between liposomes and peptides. My research demonstrates the benefits of precise volumetric assessments in biological assays.

A sticky coating composed of dairy proteins and bioactive peptides (caseinophosphopeptides, CPPs) to prevent dental caries was formulated. The coating consisted of 10% CPPs, 70% glycerol and 20% casein (or hydrolysate) and/or whey in ratios from 0:100 to 100:0 casein:whey. Sodium caseinate was hydrolysed with three different enzymes, Alcalase, trypsin and α-chymotrypsin, yielding three hydrolysates classified as CN-A, CN-T and CN-C, respectively. The degree of hydrolysis reached levels of 18.04, 13.63 and 11.40% for CN-A, CN-T and CN-C respectively. Degree of hydrolysis was proportional to molecular weight determined by FPLC. CN-C coatings were the stickiest based on probe-tack test and capable of withstanding up to 22.46 N of force. Attempts to correlate glass transition temperatures to stickiness of the coatings proved inconclusive. All coatings were capable of binding enough calcium to remineralise tooth enamel. Results indicated that 100:0 CN-C:whey produced the stickiest coating; however this combination also increased bacterial adhesion. / February 2016

Los péptidos bioactivos son fragmentos que forman parte de muchas proteínas y que al ser liberados son capaces de regular una serie de procesos biológicos. Para liberarlos, las proteínas son degradas por medio de enzimas digestivas o procesos industriales. Estos péptidos mantienen propiedades antihipertensivas, antimicrobianas, antioxidantes, anticarcinógenas, antinflamatorias, entre otras, que podrían ser aprovechadas para el desarrollo de nuevos fármacos. En este trabajo de investigación, hemos resaltado la utilidad de los péptidos bioactivos como compuestos altamente específicos capaces de contribuir en la mejora de patologías tales como el cáncer, la hipertensión arterial y la enfermedad de Alzheimer. Particularmente, en estas enfermedades, mostramos experimentos in vitro e in vivo con resultados prometedores que motivan a continuar su estudio en humanos. Estos péptidos fueron extraídos del haba de la soja, la leche de vaca y el hígado de atún, evidenciando la disponibilidad de estos en la naturaleza y generando la incógnita de que otros compuestos podrían encontrarse en la flora y fauna del Perú. De la misma forma, se presentan una serie de tecnologías novedosas para el aislamiento de dichos compuestos, entre estas están la precipitación selectiva, la filtración por membrana, la cromatografía de exclusión por tamaño y el isoelectroenfoque. Éstas son escalables, de fácil aplicación, rápidas, no requieren mayor inversión en infraestructura u equipamiento y no necesitan de una gran cantidad de muestra. En conclusión, en este trabajo se demuestra que los péptidos bioactivos guardan gran promesa, en particular en la identificación de compuestos novedosos para el desarrollo de nuevas drogas. Si se genera una alianza en el Perú entre la comunidad científica, la industria y entes públicos financiadores, se podría explotar, responsablemente, la biodiversidad de nuestro país para proceder, en gran escala, con el aislamiento y la identificación masiva de compuestos bioactivos de gran interés a nivel mundial. / Bioactive peptides are fragments that are part of many proteins and which, upon release, are capable of regulating a series of biological processes. To release them, proteins need to be degraded by digestive enzymes or industrial processes. These peptides maintain antihypertensive, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory properties, amongst others, that could be used to develop new drugs. In this research work, we have highlighted the utility of bioactive peptides as highly-specific compounds capable to contribute in the improvements of pathologies such as cancer, high blood pressure and Alzheimer’s disease. Particularly, in these diseases, we show in vitro and in vivo experiments with promising results that motivate further studies in humans. These peptides were extracted from soy bean, cow milk and tuna liver, evidencing the availability of these in nature and posing the question of all the other compounds that could be found in the flora and fauna of Peru. Moreover, we present a serious of novel technologies to isolate said compounds, amongst these are selective precipitation, membrane filtration, size-exclusion chromatography and isoelectric focusing. These techniques are scalable, easily applied, rapid, do not require significant investment in infrastructure or equipment and do not need a significant amount of sample. In conclusion, in this work we demonstrate that bioactive peptides have great promise in particular in the identification of novel compounds to develop new drugs. If we generate an alliance in Peru between the scientific community, the industry and public financing entities, our country’s biodiversity could be responsibly exploited to proceed, in a big scale, with the massive isolation and identification of bioactive compounds of great interest worldwide / Trabajo de investigación

Peptídeos com ação inibitória sobre a enzima conversora de angiotensina I (ECA) e com o potencial de reduzir a pressão arterial têm sido obtidos a partir de diferentes tipos de alimentos ou matérias-primas, sendo grande o interesse em aproveitar resíduos da indústria alimentícia como fontes desses peptídeos. Neste aspecto, as amêndoas de cupuaçu (Theobroma grandiflorum S.), que são em sua maioria descartadas pela indústria, apresentam um teor considerável de proteínas e poderiam ser aproveitadas como fontes de peptídeos inibidores da ECA. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar se o concentrado proteico obtido a partir de amêndoas fermentadas de cupuaçu após ser submetido à hidrólise com a enzima pepsina poderia gerar peptídeos com ação inibitória sobre a ECA in vitro. Foi observado que após a hidrólise do concentrado proteico com pepsina por 1h foi obtido um efeito de 50 % de inibição da ECA, em ensaio realizado com o substrato Abz-FRK(Dnp)-P-OH. Posteriormente, esse hidrolisado foi submetido ao fracionamento por cromatografia em fase reversa (RP-HPLC) e resultou em cinco frações (F1-F5), das quais a terceira teve uma subfração (F3.1) com quatro novos peptídeos identificados por LC-MS/ MS com potencial em inibir a ECA. Esses quatro peptídeos (FWVAM, YRLAF, LGYFK, VTTVVTGLTF) foram sintetizados e submetidos aos ensaios para a determinação do IC50 e Ki. Os peptídeos YRLAF e LGYFK, que apresentaram mecanismo de inibição do tipo competitivo e acompetitivo, respectivamente, tiveram valores de IC50 de 4.73 e 11.11µM, e de Ki de 9.14 e 8.15 µM. Dentre os peptídeos identificados merece destaque VTTVVTGLTF que demonstrou ser um inibidor do tipo acompetitivo e apresentou as menores IC50 (0.70 µM) e Ki (2.79 µM). Em contraste, FWVAM atuou como substrato da ECA e não peptídeo inibidor. A partir dos resultados obtidos neste estudo fica demonstrado que as amêndoas fermentadas de cupuaçu podem ser fonte de peptídeos com ação inibitória da ECA, com potencial efeito anti-hipertensivo a ser, futuramente, investigado a partir de estudos in vivo. / Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory peptides with the potential to reduce blood pressure have been obtained from different types of food or raw materials, and there is a great interest in utilize residues from the food industry as sources of peptides. In this regard, cupuassu almonds (Theobroma grandiflorum S.), which are mostly discarded by the industry, has a considerable protein content and could be used as source of ACE-inhibiting peptides. Thus, the objective of this work was to verify if the protein concentrate obtained from fermented almonds of cupuassu after being submitted to the hydrolysis with the enzyme pepsin could generate peptides with inhibitory activity on ACE in vitro. In this study it was observed that after hydrolysis of the protein concentrate with pepsin for 1 h, a 50% effect of ACE inhibition was obtained in an assay performed with the Abz-FRK (Dnp) -P-OH substrate. Posteriorly, the hydrolyzate was subjected to fractionation by reverse phase chromatography (RP-HPLC) and resulted in five fractions (F1-F5), of which the third had a subfraction (F3.1) with four new peptides identified by LC-MS / MS with the potential to inhibit ACE. These four peptides (FWVAM, YRLAF, LGYFK, VTTVVTGLTF) were synthesized and assayed for IC50 and Ki. The YRLAF and LGYFK peptides, which showed a competitive and uncompetitive type inhibition mechanism respectively, presented IC50 values of 4.73 and 11.11µM, and the values for Ki were 9.14 and 8.15 µM. Among the peptides identified, it is possible to highlight VTTVVTGLTF, which was shown to be an inhibitor of the uncompetitive type and presented the lowest value for IC50 (0.70 µM) and Ki (2.79 µM). While FWVAM acted as a substrate of the ACE and not as an inhibitory peptide. From the results obtained in this study it is demonstrated that cupuassu fermented almonds can be a source of peptides with ACE inhibitory activity with potential antihypertensive effect to be further investigated from in vivo studies.

Introdução: Doenças cardiovasculares constituem importante causa de morte em todo mundo e a hipercolesterolemia está diretamente relacionada a elas. A dieta desempenha papel importante neste processo e alguns alimentos como o feijão caupi (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp), especialmente sua proteína, tem sido apontado com potencial capacidade de redução do colesterol plasmático. Os efeitos hipocolesterolêmicos já observados indicaram o uso da proteína do feijão caupi, ou dos seus peptídeos, como ingrediente funcional de alimentos para a promoção da saúde e a redução do risco de doenças. Entretanto, as consequências da digestão gastrointestinal na absorção destes peptídeos são claramente complexas tornando essenciais estudos in vitro e in vivo para avaliar a sua bioacessibilidade e sua resistência à degradação gastrointestinal, além da disponibilidade e real eficácia destes peptídeos. Objetivo: Analisar a biodisponibilidade de peptídeos e avaliar parâmetros ligados ao metabolismo do colesterol em modelos animais após ingestão de isolado proteico de feijão caupi. Métodos: A farinha de feijão caupi foi desengordurada e sua proteína isolada. O isolado proteico foi submetido a métodos de hidrólise in vitro, para verificação das frações peptídicas formadas e inferência sobre a capacidade de ligação à albumina. Dois experimentos in vivo foram conduzidos. No primeiro, o isolado proteico do feijão caupi foi administrado a ratos e a concentração dos peptídeos monitorada no sangue, por 2 horas. O experimento in vivo 2 consistiu na alimentação de hamsters com dietas normo (N) - e hipercolesterolêmicas por 21 dias, contendo a proteína do feijão caupi como única proteína da ração (I), comparada ao controle de caseína (H). Neste experimento foram analisados no plasma: colesterol total (CT) e frações (LDLc, VLDLc e HDLc), triglicerídeos (TG) e peptídeos; nas fezes: colesterol total (CF) e ácidos biliares (AB); no fígado: colesterol (CH) e lipídeos totais (LH), HMGCR (atividade enzimática e expressão) e expressão de SREBP2, LDLR, ABCA1, ABCG1, ABCG5, ABCG8, LXRa e AMPK. Resultados: Os peptídeos identificados a partir da hidrólise proteica do feijão caupi, ou a partir do plasma dos animais estudados não evidenciaram similaridades entre os experimentos ou corresponderam a sequências previamente identificadas para o feijão caupi a partir de banco de dados. CT, VLDLc, HDLc, TG, CH dos hamsters foram maiores nos grupos H e I quando comparado ao N; LDLc foi maior para I comparado aos demais; LH foi maior em H comparado a N, sendo que I não diferiu dos demais; CF foi maior para I comparado a N, sendo que H não diferiu dos demais. A expressão de ABCA1 foi maior para I em relação aos demais; LXRa foi maior para I em relação a H, mas N não diferiu dos demais; SREBP2 foi menor em H em comparação aos demais; HMGCR foi mais expressa em N em comparação aos demais, ao passo que a atividade desta enzima foi maior em I quando comparado a N, sendo que H não diferiu dos demais. Não houve diferença entre os grupos quanto a AB ou expressão de ABCG8 ou AMPK. Não foram obtidos resultados de expressão para LDLR, ABCG1 e ABCG5. Conclusão: Apesar de pesquisas anteriores a este trabalho terem evidenciado a capacidade do isolado proteico do feijão caupi em inibir a atividade da HMGCR, inibir a solubilização micelar ou melhorar o perfil de lipídeos plasmáticos, no trabalho atual esta matéria prima não mostrou atuação positiva quanto ao metabolismo do colesterol de hamsters nas condições experimentais utilizadas. Os fragmentos indicados como peptídeos obtidos a partir da hidrólise proteica do feijão caupi, ou do plasma dos animais estudados não corresponderam a peptídeos com comprovada, ou até mesmo, com indicação de bioatividade / Introduction: Cardiovascular diseases are important cause of death worldwide and hypercholesterolemia is directly related to them. Diet plays an important role in this process and some foods such as cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp), especially its protein, have been shown to have a potential for reducing plasma cholesterol. The hypocholesterolemic effects already observed indicated the use of cowpea protein, or its peptides, as a functional food ingredient for health promotion and reduction of disease risk. However, the consequences of gastrointestinal digestion on the absorption of these peptides are clearly complex, making in vitro and in vivo studies essential to assess their bioaccessibility and resistance to gastrointestinal degradation, as well as the availability and actual efficacy of these peptides. Objectives: To analyze the bioavailability of peptides and evaluate parameters related to cholesterol metabolism in animal models after ingestion of protein isolate of cowpea. Methods: Cowpea flour was defatted and its protein isolated. The protein isolate was subjected to in vitro hydrolysis methods to verify the formed peptide fractions and inference about albumin binding ability. Two in vivo experiments were conducted. In the first, the cowpea protein isolate was administered to rats and the concentration of the peptides monitored in the blood for 2 hours. The in vivo experiment 2 consisted of feeding hamsters with normal (N) - and hypercholesterolemic diets for 21 days, containing the cowpea protein as the sole dietary protein (I), compared to casein control (H). In this experiment were analyzed in the plasma: total cholesterol (TC) and fractions (LDLc, VLDLc and HDLc), triglycerides (TG) and peptides; In feces: total cholesterol (CF) and bile acids (AB); In the liver: cholesterol (CH) and total lipids (LH), HMGCR (enzymatic activity and expression) and expression of SREBP2, LDLR, ABCA1, ABCG1, ABCG5, ABCG8, LXRa and AMPK. XX. Results: The peptides identified from the protein hydrolysis of cowpea or from the plasma of the animals studied did not show similarities among the experiments or correspond to sequences previously identified for the cowpea from the database. CT, VLDLc, HDLc, TG, CH of hamsters were higher in groups H and I when compared to N; LDLc was higher for I compared to the others; LH was higher in H compared to N, and I did not differ from the others; CF was higher for I compared to N, and H did not differ from the others. The expression of ABCA1 was higher for I than the others; LXRa was higher for I than H, but N did not differ from the others; SREBP2 was lower in H compared to the others; HMGCR was more expressed in N compared to the others, whereas the activity of this enzyme was higher in I when compared to N, and H did not differ from the others. There was no difference between groups regarding AB or expression of ABCG8 or AMPK. No expression results were obtained for LDLR, ABCG1 and ABCG5. Conclusion: Although previous research to this work evidenced the ability of the cowpea protein isolate to inhibit HMGCR activity, inhibit micellar solubilization or improve the plasma lipid profile, in the current work this raw material did not show a positive cholesterol metabolism of hamsters under the experimental conditions used. The fragments indicated as peptides obtained from the protein hydrolysis of cowpea beans, or from the plasma of the animals studied did not correspond to peptides with proven, or even, with indication of bioactivity

Introdução: Doenças cardiovasculares constituem importante causa de morte em todo mundo e a hipercolesterolemia está diretamente relacionada a este problema de saúde pública. A dieta desempenha papel importante neste processo e alguns alimentos, como o amaranto (Amaranthus cruentus L. BRSAlegria), têm mostrado capacidade de redução do colesterol plasmático. Estudos sugerem que este efeito está relacionado a peptídeos liberados durante a digestão das proteínas, os quais atuam na modulação do metabolismo lipídico. Considerando-se que os efeitos da digestão gastrointestinal e da absorção destes peptídeos são claramente complexos torna-se importante a realização de estudos visando avaliar bioacessibilidade e mecanismos de ação destes peptídeos nos locais alvo do organismo. Objetivo: Analisar a biodisponibilidade de peptídeos em modelos animais após ingestão de isolado proteico de amaranto e relacioná-la com parâmetros ligados ao metabolismo do colesterol. Métodos: O amaranto teve sua proteína isolada. Os peptídeos da proteína do amaranto foram analisados após digestão in vitro. Dois experimentos in vivo foram conduzidos: um de fase aguda e outro de média duração. No primeiro, o isolado proteico de amaranto foi administrado a ratos e os peptídeos no sangue foram monitorados por 2 horas para verificação de fragmentos que resistissem à digestão gastrointestinal. O experimento in vivo 2 consistiu na alimentação de 3 grupos de hamster, um com dieta recomendada pela AIN93 (grupo N) e dois com dietas hipercolesterolêmicas por 21 dias, contendo a proteína de amaranto como única proteína da ração (grupo I), comparada ao controle de caseína (grupo H). Neste experimento foram analisados no plasma: peptídeos, colesterol total e frações; nas fezes: colesterol total e ácidos biliares; no fígado: colesterol, lipídeos totais, ácidos graxos, atividade enzimática da Hmgcr, expressão de Hmgcr, Srebf2, Lxr, Abca1, Abcg8 e Ampk. Resultados e discussão: Foram identificados fragmentos peptídicos provenientes da digestão in vitro do isolado proteico de amaranto, e outras dezenas de sequencias peptídicas em ratos após administração aguda de amaranto foram analisadas. Destaca-se a identificação do peptídeo ALGV, presente em proteína do amaranto de acordo com banco de dados, e similar a fragmentos com ação hipocolesterolemizante. No sangue de hamsters foram encontrados seis peptídeos com 100 por cento de cobertura e similaridade a base de dados de proteínas de amaranto, merecendo investigação sobre seus efeitos. Verificou-se que o isolado proteico de amaranto foi capaz de suprimir a hipercolesterolemia quando a dieta hipercolesterolemizante foi introduzida em paralelo a este ingrediente, com valores inferiores em 72 por cento (triglicerídeos), 64 por cento (colesterol total), 80 por cento (LDL-c) do grupo I em relação ao grupo H. Foi observada ainda menor concentração de colesterol e lipídeos totais no fígado dos animais do grupo I em relação ao grupo H (177 x 464 mg de colesterol/100 g de tecido; 2,06 x 2,86 g de lipídeos/100 g de tecido, respectivamente). Parâmetros lipídicos do sangue, das fezes e do fígado foram similares aos do grupo N, cuja dieta seguiu a preconização para roedores. Foi observada maior excreção de colesterol total no grupo I em relação ao grupo H, mas não houve maior excreção de ácidos biliares nas fezes. Não houve mudança na expressão dos genes analisados neste estudo, mas o amaranto reduziu a atividade da enzima Hmgcr. Postulase que parâmetros como expressão de Ldlr e atividade da Acat sejam alterados pela ingestão de amaranto. O perfil de ácidos graxos também foi modificado de forma a se assimilar ao grupo N, porém deve-se verificar parâmetros inflamatórios devido à maior proporção de ácido araquidônico em relação aos demais grupos estudados. Conclusão: Verifica-se biodisponibilidade dos peptídeos do amaranto e ação hipocolesterolemizante e hipolipemiante em diversas vias metabólicas, promovendo proteção cardiovascular. / Introduction: Cardiovascular diseases are important causes of death worldwide, and hypercholesterolemia is directly related to this public health problem. Diet plays an important role in this process and some foods such as amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus L. BRS-Alegria) have been shown to reduce plasma cholesterol. Studies suggest that this effect is related to peptides released during the digestion of proteins, which would play an important role in the modulation of lipid metabolism. Considering that the effects of gastrointestinal digestion and the absorption of these peptides are clearly complex, it is important to carry out studies aiming to evaluate their bioaccessibility and evaluation of the mechanisms of action of these peptides in the target sites of the organism. Objective: To analyze the bioavailability of peptides in animal models after ingestion of amaranth protein isolate and to relate it to parameters associated to cholesterol metabolism. Methods: The amaranth was crushed, the flour was defatted and its protein isolated. Amaranth peptides were analysed after in vitro digestion. Two in vivo experiments were conducted: one of acute phase and one of medium duration. In the first, the amaranth protein isolate was administered to rats and the peptides in the blood were monitored for 2 hours to check for fragments that resisted gastrointestinal digestion. The in vivo experiment 2 consisted of feeding three groups of hamsters, one with a diet recommended by AIN93 (group N) and two with hypercholesterolemic diets for 21 days, containing amaranth protein as the only dietary protein (group I), compared to casein control (group H). In this experiment were analyzed in the plasma: peptides, total cholesterol and fractions; In feces: total cholesterol and bile acids; In the liver: cholesterol, total lipids, fatty acids, Hmgcr enzymatic activity, Hmgcr expression, Srebf-2, Lxr, Abca1, Abcg8 and Ampk. Results and discussion: Peptide fragments from the in vitro digestion of amaranth protein isolate were identified and other dozens of peptide sequences were found in rats after acute amaranth administration. A higher number of peptides were found in the serum in relation to the plasma of the animals. Remarkably, ALGV peptide was found in serum of rats. This peptide is present in amaranth protein, according to databases, and is similar to fragments that present hypocholesterolemic action. In the blood of hamsters it could be found six peptides with 100 per cent coverage and similarity to the database of amaranth proteins, deserving investigation about their effects. Amaranth protein was able to suppress hypercholesterolemia when the hypercholesterolemic diet was introduced in parallel with this ingredient, with values lower for group I in 72 per cent (triglycerides), 64 per cent (total cholesterol), 80 per cent (LDL-c) in relation to the H group. A lower concentration of cholesterol and total lipids were observed in the liver of the group I compared to the H group (177 x 464 mg cholesterol / 100 g of tissue, 2.06 x 2,86 g lipids / 100 g of tissue, respectively). Lipid parameters of blood, faeces and liver were similar to those of group N, whose diet followed the recommendation for rodents. There was greater excretion of total cholesterol in group I in relation to group H, but there was no greater excretion of bile acids in feces, indicating that the effect of amaranth protein may be due to increased transintestinal cholesterol excretion, decreased micellar solubilization of cholesterol and / or modification in the expression of cholesterol transport related proteins in the intestine. There was no change in the expression of the genes analyzed in this study, but amaranth reduced the activity of the Hmgcr enzyme. It is postulated that parameters such as Ldlr expression and Acat activity are altered by amaranth intake. The fatty acid profile was also modified in order to assimilate to the N group, but inflammatory parameters related to amaranth intake should be verified due to the higher proportion of arachidonic acid in relation to the higher proportion of arachidonic acid in relation to the other groups studied. Conclusion: The bioavailability of amaranth peptides and hypocholesterolemic and hypolipidemic activity in several metabolic pathways is verified, therefore promoting cardiovascular protection.

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are of interest because of their potential to modulate immune responses. The effects of LAB range from regulation to stimulation of the immune system. It has been reported that LAB affect health via two main mechanisms: directly through physical interactions between LAB and cells of the immune system, and indirectly through the products of these bacteria. The studies presented in this thesis examine the direct and indirect effects of LAB on the immune system specifically on murine dendritic cells (DCs). Mouse DCs (in form of the DC2.4 cell line) were treated in vitro with a fraction of bovine milk fermented with Lactobacillus helveticus-2 (LH-2) or three synthetic peptides identified within the fermented milk fraction. Cell culture supernatants were analyzed for presence of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-6 to determine the effects of LAB on DC activation. The results of this study showed that the ability of the milk derived fraction and the synthetic peptides to induce DC activation and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines was limited, suggesting that these peptides may induce regulatory immune responses. A series of studies was performed in vitro to investigate the effects of six LAB species and strains, (LH-2), Lactobacillus acidophilus-5 (La-5), Lactobacillus acidophilus-115 (La-115), Lactobacillus acidophilus-116 (La-116), Lactobacillus acidophilus-14 (La-14), and Lactobacillus salivarius, on maturation and activation of DC2.4. Production of TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-10 by DCs was determined after treating cells with live LAB. The expression of DC maturation markers, CD80 and CD40, was also measured using flow cytometry after stimulation with LAB. In addition, the expression of toll-like receptors (TLRs) 2, 4 and 9 by DCs stimulated with LAB was measured. Our results revealed that LAB act differentially on pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokine production and induction of co-stimulatory molecules by DCs. Specifically, L. salivarius was found to be the most effective LAB to induce pro-inflammatory cytokine production and expression of co-stimulatory molecules. Moreover, La-14, La-116 and La-5 induced moderate maturation and activation of DCs. On the other hand, LH-2 and La-115 are the least likely lactobacilli to induce DC response. In conclusion, various strains and species of LAB can differentially regulate DC activation and maturation, raising the possibility that these microbes can influence and steer immune responses of the host.

Food protein-derived peptides have increasingly become important sources of ingredients for the formulation of therapeutic products. The main aim of this work was to study the in vitro and in vivo bioactive properties of structurally diverse group of peptides produced through enzymatic hydrolysis of flaxseed proteins (FP). Hydrolysis of FP with seven proteases followed by fractionation into low-molecular-weight (LMW) cationic fractions yielded multifunctional peptides that inhibited angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) and renin activities, which are molecular targets for antihypertensive agents. The LMW peptides also exhibited antioxidant properties by scavenging free radicals and inhibiting amine oxidase activity. The peptide fractions showed inhibition of calmodulin-dependent phosphodiesterase, an enzyme that has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several chronic diseases. Moreover, FP hydrolysis with thermolysin and pronase followed by mixing with activated carbon yielded branched-chain amino acids (BCAA)-enriched multifunctional peptide mixture (Fischer ratio of 23.65) with antioxidant properties and in vitro ACE inhibition; Fischer ratio of 20.0 is considered minimum for therapeutic purposes. The BCAA-enriched peptide product can be used in clinical nutrition to treat muscle wasting symptoms associated with hepatic diseases. Furthermore, an arginine-rich peptide mixture (31% arginine versus 11% in the original flaxseed protein) was produced by hydrolysis of FP with trypsin and pronase followed by separation using electrodialysis-ultrafiltration. Arginine plays important physiological roles especially as precursor to vasodilator, nitric oxide. The arginine-rich peptide mixture exhibited in vitro ACE and renin inhibition and led to decreased systolic blood pressure (–17.9 and –11.7 mmHg, respectively at 2 and 4 h) after oral administration to spontaneously hypertensive rats. For the first time in the literature, we showed that arginine peptides have superior physiological effects when compared to the amino acid form of arginine. Lastly, quantitative structure-activity relationship studies using partial least squares (PLS) regression yielded two predictive models for renin-inhibiting dipeptides with z-scales amino acid descriptors. The PLS models indicated that hydrophobic and bulky side chain-containing amino acids contribute to renin inhibition if present at the amino- and carboxyl-terminal of dipeptides, respectively. Based on this study, Ile-Trp was discovered as potent renin-inhibiting dipeptide, and may serve as a useful template for the development of potent antihypertensive peptidomimetics.

Food protein-derived peptides have increasingly become important sources of ingredients for the formulation of therapeutic products. The main aim of this work was to study the in vitro and in vivo bioactive properties of structurally diverse group of peptides produced through enzymatic hydrolysis of flaxseed proteins (FP). Hydrolysis of FP with seven proteases followed by fractionation into low-molecular-weight (LMW) cationic fractions yielded multifunctional peptides that inhibited angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) and renin activities, which are molecular targets for antihypertensive agents. The LMW peptides also exhibited antioxidant properties by scavenging free radicals and inhibiting amine oxidase activity. The peptide fractions showed inhibition of calmodulin-dependent phosphodiesterase, an enzyme that has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several chronic diseases. Moreover, FP hydrolysis with thermolysin and pronase followed by mixing with activated carbon yielded branched-chain amino acids (BCAA)-enriched multifunctional peptide mixture (Fischer ratio of 23.65) with antioxidant properties and in vitro ACE inhibition; Fischer ratio of 20.0 is considered minimum for therapeutic purposes. The BCAA-enriched peptide product can be used in clinical nutrition to treat muscle wasting symptoms associated with hepatic diseases. Furthermore, an arginine-rich peptide mixture (31% arginine versus 11% in the original flaxseed protein) was produced by hydrolysis of FP with trypsin and pronase followed by separation using electrodialysis-ultrafiltration. Arginine plays important physiological roles especially as precursor to vasodilator, nitric oxide. The arginine-rich peptide mixture exhibited in vitro ACE and renin inhibition and led to decreased systolic blood pressure (–17.9 and –11.7 mmHg, respectively at 2 and 4 h) after oral administration to spontaneously hypertensive rats. For the first time in the literature, we showed that arginine peptides have superior physiological effects when compared to the amino acid form of arginine. Lastly, quantitative structure-activity relationship studies using partial least squares (PLS) regression yielded two predictive models for renin-inhibiting dipeptides with z-scales amino acid descriptors. The PLS models indicated that hydrophobic and bulky side chain-containing amino acids contribute to renin inhibition if present at the amino- and carboxyl-terminal of dipeptides, respectively. Based on this study, Ile-Trp was discovered as potent renin-inhibiting dipeptide, and may serve as a useful template for the development of potent antihypertensive peptidomimetics.