Cowpea yields in Mozambique can be increased through breeding farmers’ accepted cultivars with drought tolerance and stability across environments. A study was conducted in the southern region of Mozambique to: (1) determine farmers perceptions on major constraints limiting cowpea production and identify preferences regarding cultivars and traits, (2) determine the variability of selected cowpea germplasm for drought tolerance, (3) determine the gene action controlling drought tolerance, yield and yield components in cowpea, and (4) assess the genotype × environment interaction and yield stability of cowpea genotypes under drought-stressed and non-stressed conditions. The study on farmers’ perceptions about the major constraints limiting cowpea production and preferences regarding cowpea cultivars and traits established that cowpea was an important crop, cultivated for its grain, leaves and fresh pods for household consumption and the market. The study revealed that cowpea grain and leaves were equally important across the three districts in the study. Differences in accessibility to markets between districts influenced the ranking of grain and leaves among districts. Grain was more important in Bilene and Chibuto districts which are situated far from the major urban centre, Maputo, while leaves were more important in Boane district which is near the major market of Maputo. Fresh pods were important in Bilene district which is situated along the major highway connecting Maputo and other provinces. Drought was the most important production constraint followed by aphids, bruchids and viral diseases. The criteria used by farmers to select cowpea varieties included high grain and leaf yield, large seed size, earliness, smoothness of the testa and potential marketability of the variety. The implication of this study is that different types of varieties need to be developed for different areas. Dual-purpose or grain-type varieties need to be developed for areas situated far away from the major markets while varieties for leaf production need to be bred for areas near major markets. During the breeding process, a selection index needs to be adopted whereby drought tolerance, high grain and leaf yield, large seed size, smooth testa, earliness, aphids and bruchids resistance should be integrated as components of the index. High grain yield should receive high weight for varieties developed for areas located far from major markets while high leaf yield would receive high weight for varieties developed for areas located near major markets. The study on variability of cowpea germplasm collections for drought tolerance revealed wide genotypic variability among the tested germplasm. Biplot displays indicated that the genotypes could be grouped into four categories according to their drought tolerance and yielding ability as indicated below: high yielding-drought tolerant (group A), high yielding-drought susceptible (group B), low yielding-drought tolerant (group C), and low yielding-drought susceptible (group D). Examples of high yielding-drought tolerant genotypes were Sh-50, UC-524B, INIA-24, INIA-120, IT96D-610 and Tete-2. Stress tolerance index was the best criterion for assessing genotypes for variability in drought tolerance because it enabled the identification of high yielding and drought tolerant genotypes (group A). The assessment on gene action controlling drought tolerance (stay-green), yield and components indicated that both additive and non-additive effects were involved in controlling all of these traits. Additive gene action was more important than non-additive gene affects in controlling stay-green, days to flowering, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod and hundred seed weight. Under no-stress conditions, additive gene action was more important than non-additive gene action while under drought-stressed conditions, non-additive gene effects were more important than additive gene effects. Stay-green can easily be assessed visually in early segregating populations while yield and yield related traits cannot. Hence, selection for drought tolerance using the stay-green trait would be effective in early segregating generations while selection for yield and number of pods per plant would be effective in late segregating generations. Selection for yield could be conducted directly under no-stress conditions and indirectly using the number of pods per plant under drought stress conditions. Genotype INIA-41 would be the most desirable to use as a parent for drought tolerance and IT93K-503-1 would be the most desirable to use as a parent for drought tolerance and yield. The assessment on genotype × environment interaction and cowpea grain yield stability for forty-eight (48) cowpea genotypes grown under drought-stressed and non-stressed conditions indicated that cross-over genotype × environment interactions were present for yield indicating that genotypes responded differently to varying environmental conditions. Genotypes adapted to specific environmental conditions could be identified. Genotypes IT-18, INIA-51, INIA-51A and Nhavanca were adapted to non-stressed environments that were either drought stressed or non-stressed while VAR-11D was adapted to low yielding, stressful environments. Genotypes INIA-23A, INIA-81D, INIA-24, INIA-25, INIA-16 and INIA-76 were high yielding and stable while genotypes IT-18, INIA-51, INIA-51A, Nhavanca and VAR-11D were high yielding and unstable. Genotypes Bambey-21, INIA-36, INIA-12 and Monteiro were consistently low yielding and stable except INIA-12 that was consistently unstable. Chókwè was a high yielding environment and suitable for identifying high yielding genotypes but not ideal for selection because it was not representative of an average environment while Umbeluzi was low yielding and not ideal for selection. Overall, the study revealed that genetic improvement of drought tolerance and yield would be feasible. Potential parents for genetic improvement for yield and drought tolerance were identified. However, further studies for assessing yield stability of cowpea genotypes are necessary and could be achieved by including more seasons and sites to get a better understanding of the genotype × environment interaction and yield stability of cowpea in Mozambique. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

Thesis (M.Sc. (Agriculture)) --University of Limpopo, 2010 / Two studies were carried out to investigate the effect of cowpea cultivar supplementation on productivity of Pedi goats and Doper sheep fed ad libitum buffalo grass. Experiment 1 investigated the effect of cowpea cultivars supplementation on productivity of Pedi goats fed ad libitum buffalo grass hay using twelve goats that were assigned in a completely randomized design. The Pedi goats were fed ad libitum a basal diet of buffalo grass supplemented with four levels each of four cowpea cultivars namely, Pan 311, Red caloona, Black eye and Agripes. The four levels fed were 50, 100, 150 and 200 g/day. The experiment involved a 25 day preliminary period and a five day collection period during which feed intake, digestibility, live weight changes and nitrogen were measured. Based on available data, all the cowpea cultivars contained more than 15 % crude protein and can therefore be used as protein supplements to goats on low quality roughage. Pan 311 had higher feeding value (p<0.05), although it contained the highest concentration of condensed tannins. The concentration of tannins in Pan 311 did not exert negative effects on intake and digestibility. The data on a in vitro enzymatic digestibility of the cowpea cultivars and buffalo grass hay demonstrated that the cowpea cultivars had higher in vitro DM, OM and protein digestibilities that ranged from 0.64 to 0.75. The cowpea cultivars have high in vitro digestibility values thus implicating their suitability as supplements. Also chemical contents of the cowpea cultivars and the buffalo grass hay had poor capacity to predict forage in vitro digestibility. Forage intake and growth rate of Pedi goats were poorly predicted from in vitro digestibility. Experiment 11 investigated the intake and relative palatability indices of four cowpea cultivars offered to Pedi goats and Dorper sheep fed low quality buffalo grass hay. The experiment was a 2 (animal species goats and sheep) x 5 diets (four cowpea cultivars and buffalo grass hay) factorial arrangement in a completely randomized design. Intake and palatability of the goats and sheep were higher in Pan 311. Sheep had higher voluntary feed intake values than goats, but palatability indices were higher in goats than in sheep. Goats were better than sheep in the palatability indices ranking of the four cowpea cultivars. This seems to demonstrate that goats are better suited for assessing palatability indices ranking of cowpea hays and other similar legumes. Forage intakes and palatability indices ranking were poorly predicted from their nutrient. Growth of the goats was well predicted by forage in vivo digestibility and palatability indices. Also, forage intakes accurately predicted the palatability indices of the cowpea cultivars by the goats and sheep.

The primary hypothesis of this research was that improved cowpea genotypes (selected under sole crop) could yield well in several Nigerian cropping systems, and that there were cowpea characteristics that improved overall system productivity. Cowpea lines were identified which were high yielding and stable in several management systems. Practices such as not applying insecticide and intercropping both reduced cowpea grain yield significantly. Land equivalent ratios were greater than one for all tested intercrop systems: cassava-cowpea (1.21-2.35), maize-cowpea (1.31-4.23), maize-cassava-cowpea (1.63-3.40) and millet-cowpea (1.13-6.88). Nitrogen nutrition of component crops was investigated. Line influenced both maize grain (12.5-28.4 kg ha-1) and total biomass (48.7-69.0 kg ha-1) nitrogen yield. Evidence from pot and field experiments (including $ sp{15}$N-dilution studies) indicated same-season nitrogen transfer. Light interception studies also indicated the increased light harvesting ability of early sole cowpea lines compared to early intercropped lines systems.

Thesis (MTech (Agriculture))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2017. / Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp) is an important grain and fodder legume grown around the world. It is a dual purpose grain legume crop, providing food for man and livestock. Cowpea is identified as a potential crop to diversify food production, minimize production input by improving soil fertility and improve micronutrients of seed, therefore, improving human nutrition. There is limited information available on cowpea production and suitable agronomic practices including planting date to best suit different environmental conditions in South Africa. The objective of this study was therefore to i) evaluate two soil types (sandy and clay soil) and its effect on cowpea, yield components and mineral composition, ii) the effect of different planting date and iii) assess the effect of zinc fertilizer application rate on vegetative, reproductive parameters and mineral content of cowpea seed. A field trial was conducted in Agricultural Research Council (ARC), in two locations Nietvoorbij (clay loam soil) and Bien Donne’ (sandy soil) during the 2015 summer planting season. The trial layout was conducted in a randomised complete block design (RCBD) with five replicates. The factors of the study include three cowpea lines: Cowpea Veg1, M217 and Qukawa with zinc application rate of (0, 15 and 30 kg/ha) through soil application and two planting date (2 October and 2 November 2015). The following agronomic variables were collected, in both locations: germination rate, number of leaves, number of branches, plant height, number of seed per pod, number of pods per plant, pod length, pods per treatment, pod weight, 100 seed weight, morphological traits, moisture content and seed mineral content. Vegetative data was collected on a fourth-night basis on six middle plants per treatment and reproductive parameters were taken after harvest. The variables were subjected to ANOVA using software SAS (2012). Treatments were tested at 5% level of significance and differences between treatments were separated using LSD and DMRT of the SAS 2012 test. The results indicated that vegetative and reproductive parameters measured varied significantly among cowpea lines in each location and across locations due to different cowpea lines and soil type. Line Cowpea Veg1 and Qukawa were the best performing line in both vegetative and yield parameters across the two planting dates in 2015. These lines significantly obtained higher plant height than line M217. Yield and yield parameters were significantly affected by cowpea line. Qukawa obtained the highest seed yield at Bien Donne’ with a mean of 1184.2 kg/ha and seed yield of 686.25 kg/ha for Cowpea Veg1 at Nietvoorbij. The second planting date (2 November 2015) improved germination of plants across the two locations, therefore improving vegetative growth. Zinc (Zn) fertilizer significantly improved plant height across all treatments. An inconsistent response to yield parameters due to Zn application rate was observed. However, though not significant, Zn application of 15 kg/ha increased most of the measured parameters. It was concluded that line Cowpea Veg1 and Qukawa were the best performing lines. The second planting date (2 November) increase germination rate for both locations. It is therefore, recommended that future research should evaluate Zn fertilizer time of application.

Cowpea, Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp is an excellent source of protein, vitamins and minerals and a major food crop many parts of Africa. Optimal production levels are hampered by insect pests and diseases. Biotechnological techniques such as tissue culture and genetic engineering can aid in the development of varieties with resistance to insect pests and diseases. The objective of this study was to investigate conditions necessary for the development of a reproducible tissue culture system that can be applied to regenerate transformed cells from culture. The in vitro manipulation of cowpea using Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium, auxins and cytokinins resulted in the formation of callus and rhizogenesis. Calli that were formed were separated into six classes based on color and texture. Yellowish friable callus, yellowish compact, soft yellowish callus and green and white were composed of largely vacuolated cells and were non-regenerative. Friable green callus was the most prevalent callus type and could form of roots in some hormone combinations. Green spots were formed on hard compact green callus. The green spots became nodular, forming root primordia and ultimately giving rise to roots. None of the six calli types gave rise to the formation of shoots. Embryogenic callus was induced from cowpea explants cultured on MS medium supplemented with dicamba and picloram. Embryogenic suspension cultures were initiated from callus induced on MS supplemented with 3.0 mg/L dicamba or picloram and conditions for maintenance of embryogenic suspension cultures were evaluated. Somatic embryos were formed in suspension cultures. Attempts to convert and germinate the somatic embryos resulted in the formation of callus or formation of appendages on the somatic embryos or in the death of the embryos. The appendages formed roots on prolonged culture. Further research is needed to determine appropriate optimal conditions for embryo conversion and germination and ultimately plant recovery from culture.

Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) are legumes recognised as a good source of proteins in developing countries. Cowpeas are mostly utilised as cooked whole seeds. This is often achieved only after boiling for up to 2 hours, resulting in high energy consumption and a long time for food preparation. Micronisation of pre-conditioned cowpeas (± 41 % moisture at 153 °C) reduces their cooking time. During micronisation, cowpea seeds are exposed to electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength range of 1.8 to 3.4μm. For biological materials, the penetration of infrared rays into the food material causes intermolecular vibration, this result in a rapid increase in temperature and water vapour pressure within the seed. Micronisation changes physico-chemical properties of cowpea seeds that may affect sensory properties of cooked cowpeas. Micronisation may also affect cowpea bioactive components such as phenolic compounds and hence their antioxidant properties and bioactive properties. This study aimed at (1) determining the effects of micronisation of pre-conditioned cowpeas on sensory properties of cooked cowpeas and (2) determining the effects of mironisation of pre-conditioned cowpeas on the phenolic compounds, radical scavenging properties and their protective effects against oxidative damage of biomolecules (i.e. low density lipoproteins (LDL), deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and red blood cells (RBC). © University of Pretoria vi Micronisation significantly reduced cowpea cooking time by 28 to 49 %, depending on cowpea type. There were significant (P<0.05) increases in roasted aroma and flavour, mushy texture and splitting in all micronised samples. Bechuana white, a light brown cowpea type, was more mushy and split than others. There were significant decreases in firmness, mealiness and coarseness after micronisation for all cowpea types. Micronised cowpeas were darker (lower L* values) than unmicronised cooked cowpeas. Darkening was more evident in light coloured than dark coloured cowpea types. Although micronisation reduces cowpea cooking time, it also affects sensory properties of cowpeas. This might have an influence on consumer acceptance of micronised cowpeas. Twenty seven phenolic compounds were identified in the cowpea types studied: 6 phenolic acids, 14 flavonols and 7 flavan-3-ols. Protocatechuic acid, p-coumaric acid, 4- hydroxybenzoic acid and ferulic acid were the major phenolic acids in cowpeas. Catechin, catechin-3-O-glucoside, myricetin, rutin, quercetin and its mono and diglycosides were present in all cowpea types analysed. Dr Saunders (701.7−849.2 μg/g) (red in colour) and Glenda (571.9−708.1 μg/g) (dark brown in colour) contained the highest total phenolic contents, followed by Bechuana white (361.5−602.3 μg/g) (light brown in colour) and Blackeye (152.0−224.5 μg/g) (cream in colour). More of the flavonols were identified in red and dark brown compared to light brown and cream cowpea types. The red cowpea type contained all the dimers and oligomeric flavan-3-ol species identified in this study. In all cowpea types, extracts from unmicronised (uncooked) cowpeas inhibited copperinduced LDL oxidation in a dose dependent manner. Extracts from all samples analysed exhibited protective effects against AAPH (2, 2'-azobis (2-amidinopropane) hydrochloride) induced RBC haemolysis and DNA damage. Extracts from more pigmented cowpeas, i.e. Dr Saunders, Glenda and Bechuana white, had significantly (P<0.05) higher levels of total phenolics, total flavonoids and radical scavenging properties than Blackeye (less pigmented). Extracts from more pigmented cowpeas also offered higher protection against AAPH-induced DNA and copper-induced LDL oxidation damage than extracts from less pigmented cowpeas. These results indicate protection of biomolecules e.g. DNA, LDL and RBC) from oxidative damage and have a potential to reduce oxidative stress implicated in the development of chronic diseases. This is because cowpea phenolic compounds possess the ability to reduce oxidative damage associated with development of these diseases. © University of Pretoria vii Pigmented cowpea types may be recommended for health applications as they show more potential as source of antioxidants compared to the less pigmented cowpeas. Extracts from micronised (uncooked and cooked) samples of Dr Saunders and Glenda cowpeas had significantly higher concentrations of ferulic acid and p-coumaric acid compared with unmicronised samples. Para-coumaric acid concentrations were higher in all micronised samples of Blackeye cowpeas than in unmicronised samples. The micronisation process could release cell wall bound ferulic acid and p-coumaric, increasing their concentrations in micronised samples. On the contrary, extracts from all micronised samples of Bechuana white and Glenda cowpeas had lower concentrations of catechin than unmicronised samples. Results indicated that total extractable phenolics were lower in micronised samples of cowpea types than unmicronised samples. Futhermore, extracts from micronised samples of all cowpea types showed less protective effect against LDL oxidation than extracts from unmicronised samples. However, for most cowpea types there was no significant difference in total flavonoid contents (TFC) and Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) values of cooked samples of both micronised and unmicronised. Micronisation did not affect the protective effects of cowpeas against AAPH-induced RBC haemolysis and oxidative DNA damage. Micronisation, followed by cooking, may have generated heat-induced antioxidants such as Maillard reaction products contributing to radical scavenging properties in micronised (cooked) cowpea samples. Though micronised samples had lower concentrations of some phenolic compounds and total extractable phenolics than unmicronised samples, micronised cowpea samples still exhibited radical scavenging properties and offered protective effects against oxidative damage of LDL, DNA and RBC and therefore may offer potential health benefits to consumers. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2013 / Food Science / Unrestricted

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Thesis (M.Sc. (Agricultural Economics)) --University of Limpopo, 2018 / Legumes are crops that are rich in protein and if households are made aware of their importance, they can be acquired at lower costs and dependency on animal proteins can also be reduced. The cowpea smallholder producers in Africa are faced with numerous challenges such as persistent pests such as aphids that reduce yields, lack of improved varieties and the inability to produce in quantities large enough to sell to local or broader markets in South Africa. The aim of this study was to examine economic efficiency of cowpea production among smallholder cowpea farmers in Capricorn and Waterberg districts of Limpopo province. The descriptive statistics indicated that interviewed farmers years of schooling ranged from 0 to 13 years, with an average of five years of attending school. Farmers’ age ranged between 33 and 78, with an average age of 61 years. The average income received on monthly basis from the overall agricultural produce was R1735.83 per farmer. The Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) results showed that the Technical Efficiency (TE) scores of cowpea farmers had a mean of 0,9588 with a minimum of 0,7500 and maximum of 1,000. This means that 95% of the farmers were technically efficient. The allocative Efficiency score ranges from a minimum of 0,4070 and a maximum of 1,000 with a mean of 0,6519. The Allocative Efficiency (AE) scores imply that farmers were not utilizing inputs. The Economic Efficiency scores ranges from a minimum of 0,3820 to 1,000 with a mean score of 0,6218. This implies that cowpea smallholder farmers were economically inefficient on average and that the cost of cowpea production for each farm could be decreased on average by approximately 38% to obtain the same level of output. The Tobit regression model found that the explanatory variables which were significant are age, educational level, primary income source, farm size, method of intercropping, purpose of growing cowpea and source of field labour. The study recommends that there is a need to provide primary education to the farmers for them to be able to measure and calculate the inputs they use and output they attain in order to improve their efficiency levels. Key words: Economic Efficiency, Smallholder Farmers and Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA).