Interleukin (IL)-7 is an essential non-redundant cytokine and throughout the life-span of a T cell signaling via the IL-7 receptor influences cell survival, proliferation and function. It is therefore no surprise that expression of the IL-7 receptor alpha-chain (CD127) is tightly regulated. In this study I establish IL-7 down regulates CD127 gene transcription and surface protein expression in primary human CD8 T cells through two mechanisms. Upon binding IL-7, surface CD127 is rapidly internalized and phosphorylated at the critical tyrosine residue Y449. Concurrent activation of the JAK/STAT5 pathway stimulates expression of CIS, a member of the SOCS family of proteins. CIS protein already expressed at basal levels and induced by IL-7 bind directly to CD127 as demonstrated by Coimmunoprecipitation assays and colocalize with both CD127 and the early endosomal marker EEA1. Subsequent proteasomal degradation of CD127 and CIS is dependent on an E3 ligase. Through siRNA-mediated knockdowns I confirm CIS plays a predominant role in the IL-7 mediated degradation of CD127. The mechanism by which IL-7 suppresses CD127 transcripts in primary human CD8 T cells was also examined. Through qPCR and nuclear run-on assays I illustrate that IL-7 suppresses CD127 gene transcription in a time- and dose-dependent manner. The IL-7 mediated suppression of CD127 transcripts is dependent on JAK/STAT5 signaling. Notably, cycloheximide blocked IL-7’s ability to down-regulate CD127 transcripts suggesting IL-7 stimulates the de novo synthesis of a transcriptional repressor of the CD127 gene. Through PCR arrays, qPCR and Western blot analysis the IL-7 inducible transcription factor c-Myb was identified as a candidate repressor. The region within the CD127 gene promoter required for IL-7 mediated transcriptional suppression was identified through progressive truncations using firefly luciferase as a reporter gene and is located from -1760 to -2406 bp upstream of the TATA box and contains three putative c-Myb binding sites. Using siRNA-mediated knockdown and transient over-expression, I illustrate c-Myb suppresses CD127 gene transcription in primary human CD8 T cells. A thorough understanding of the mechanisms by which IL-7 regulates CD127 expression is imperative and may reveal novel insights into the contribution of abnormal IL-7 signaling to diseases affecting immune function.

Interleukin (IL)-7 is an essential non-redundant cytokine and throughout the life-span of a T cell signaling via the IL-7 receptor influences cell survival, proliferation and function. It is therefore no surprise that expression of the IL-7 receptor alpha-chain (CD127) is tightly regulated. In this study I establish IL-7 down regulates CD127 gene transcription and surface protein expression in primary human CD8 T cells through two mechanisms. Upon binding IL-7, surface CD127 is rapidly internalized and phosphorylated at the critical tyrosine residue Y449. Concurrent activation of the JAK/STAT5 pathway stimulates expression of CIS, a member of the SOCS family of proteins. CIS protein already expressed at basal levels and induced by IL-7 bind directly to CD127 as demonstrated by Coimmunoprecipitation assays and colocalize with both CD127 and the early endosomal marker EEA1. Subsequent proteasomal degradation of CD127 and CIS is dependent on an E3 ligase. Through siRNA-mediated knockdowns I confirm CIS plays a predominant role in the IL-7 mediated degradation of CD127. The mechanism by which IL-7 suppresses CD127 transcripts in primary human CD8 T cells was also examined. Through qPCR and nuclear run-on assays I illustrate that IL-7 suppresses CD127 gene transcription in a time- and dose-dependent manner. The IL-7 mediated suppression of CD127 transcripts is dependent on JAK/STAT5 signaling. Notably, cycloheximide blocked IL-7’s ability to down-regulate CD127 transcripts suggesting IL-7 stimulates the de novo synthesis of a transcriptional repressor of the CD127 gene. Through PCR arrays, qPCR and Western blot analysis the IL-7 inducible transcription factor c-Myb was identified as a candidate repressor. The region within the CD127 gene promoter required for IL-7 mediated transcriptional suppression was identified through progressive truncations using firefly luciferase as a reporter gene and is located from -1760 to -2406 bp upstream of the TATA box and contains three putative c-Myb binding sites. Using siRNA-mediated knockdown and transient over-expression, I illustrate c-Myb suppresses CD127 gene transcription in primary human CD8 T cells. A thorough understanding of the mechanisms by which IL-7 regulates CD127 expression is imperative and may reveal novel insights into the contribution of abnormal IL-7 signaling to diseases affecting immune function.

Previous studies have shown that cytotoxic CD8+ T cells are important mediators of immunity against the bovine intracellular protozoan parasite T. parva. The present study set out to determine the role of granule enzymes in mediating killing of parasitized cells, first by characterising the granzymes expressed by bovine lymphocytes and, second, by investigating their involvement in killing of target cells. Experiments using the perforin inhibitor concanamycin A confirmed that CD8+ T cell killing of T. parva-infected cells is dependent on granule exocytosis, a process that involves release of granzymes into the target cell, resulting in activation of apoptotic pathways. Analysis of the bovine genome sequence identified orthologues of granzymes A, B, H, K and M, as well as another gene O, most closely related to granzyme A. The genes were found within 3 loci in the genome. Using specific PCR assays, all of these granzymes were shown to be expressed in Theileria-specific CD8+ T cells. Further studies were undertaken to study the role of granzyme B in killing. DNA constructs encoding functional and non-functional forms of bovine granzyme B were produced and the proteins expressed in COS cells were used to establish an enzymatic assay to detect and quantify expression of functional granzyme B protein. Using this assay, the levels of killing of different T. parvaspecific CD8+ T cell clones were found to be significantly correlating with levels of granzyme B protein expression. Moreover, the granzyme B inhibitor III, Z-IETDFMK was shown to inhibit killing by CD8+ T cell clones.

Dans les conditions physiologiques des robustes mécanismes immunologiques empêchent le développement des réponses exagérées aux antigènes alimentaires. En revanche, dans le cas de maladie céliaque, qui affecte environ 1% de la population occidentale, l’exposition au gluten alimentaire d’individus génétiquement prédisposés HLA-DQ2.5/DQ8 provoque l’entéropathie chronique de l’intestin grêle. Les études précédentes chez l’homme ont établi le rôle crucial de la réponse cellulaire T CD4+ restreinte par HLA-DQ2.5/DQ8 et spécifique du gluten. La réponse T CD4+ est nécessaire mais cependant insuffisante pour induire des lésions tissulaires. D’autres études ont suggéré le rôle de l’interleukine 15 (IL-15). Ainsi, l’IL-15 surexprimée dans la muqueuse des patients céliaques peut interférer avec les mécanismes d’immunorégulation et stimuler l’activation des lymphocytes intraépithéliaux T CD8+ cytotoxiques probablement induisant des lésions épithéliales. Comment les cellules T CD4+ spécifiques du gluten et l’IL-15 interagissent pour activer les lymphocytes intraépithéliaux T CD8+ et induisent des lésions n’a pas été toutefois établi. Pour répondre à cette question, nous avons créé un modèle murin basé en croisant des souris OTII possédant des cellules T CD4+ spécifiques de l’antigène modèle, ovalbumine, avec les souris transgéniques hétérozygotes surexprimant une forme secrétée de l’IL-15 humaine dans l’épithélium intestinale (souris hIL-15Tge). Les souris obtenues OTII+/- B6 and OTII+/- hIL-15Tge+/- ont été mises au régime riche en ovalbumine depuis la période prénatale jusqu’à l’âge de 3 mois. Les souris OTII+/- hIL-15Tge+/-, contrairement aux souris OTII+/- B6, exposées de façon chronique à l’ovalbumine ont développé un retard de croissance et une atrophie villositaire associée à l’expansion des cellules intestinales T CD8+ cytotoxiques, comme dans la maladie céliaque. En outre, nous avons démontré que l’IL-15 altérait l’immunorégulation par les cellules T FoxpP3+ et coopérait avec l’IL-2, produite par les cellules T CD4+ activées par l’OVA, pour l’expansion des cellules T CD8+ non-spécifiques de l’OVA. Nous suggérons que le scénario similaire pourrait opérer dans la maladie céliaque. Au cours de cette étude, j’ai observé que la surexpression chronique de l’IL-15 était associée avec l’expansion de cellules dendritiques CD103+CD11c+CD11b-. Dans la partie de résultats supplémentaires, j’ai démontré que cet effet dépend de la production de la cytokine GM-CSF secrétée par les cellules Natural Killer (NK) activées par l’IL-15 et que ces cellules dendritiques étaient enrichies en cellules CD103+ ayant une capacité accrue de cross-présentation in vitro. Ces derniers résultats illustrent comment l’IL-15 peut moduler les réponses immunes adaptatives en orchestrant la coopération entre les cellules NK et les phagocytes mononucléaires. / In physiological conditions, robust immunological mechanisms avoid adverse responses to food antigens. In contrast, in celiac disease that affects about 1% of Western populations, exposure to dietary gluten of genetically predisposed HLA-DQ2.5/ DQ8 individuals triggers a chronic small intestinal enteropathy. Previous studies in humans have established the crucial role of HLA-DQ2/DQ8 restricted gluten-specific intestinal CD4 T cell response. This CD4 T cell response is necessary but is however not sufficient to induce tissue damage. Other studies have pointed to the role of interleukin 15 (IL-15). Thus, IL-15 over-expressed in the mucosa of celiac patients can interfere with immunoregulatory mechanisms and stimulate the activation of cytotoxic CD8 T intraepithelial lymphocytes, thought to induce epithelial lesions. Whether and how gluten-specific CD4 T cells and IL-15 interact to activate CD8 T intraepithelial lymphocytes and to drive intestinal tissue damage has not been however established. To address this question, we have set up a mouse model based on the breeding of OTII mice possessing CD4 T cells specific of a model antigen, ovalbumin, with heterozygous transgenic mice overexpressing a secreted form of human IL-15 in intestinal epithelium (hIL-15Tge mice). Resulting OTII+/- B6 and OTII+/- hIL-15Tge+/- mice were exposed to dietary ovalbumin from the prenatal period until 3 months of age. Upon chronic exposure to ovalbumin, OTII+/- hIL-15Tge+ mice, contrary to their OTII+/- B6 littermates, developed growth retardation, and villous atrophy associated with expansion of intestinal cytotoxic CD8 T cells, as in celiac disease. Moreover, we showed that IL-15 impaired immunoregulation by FoxP3+ T cells and cooperated with IL-2 produced by OVA-activated CD4 T cells to stimulate the expansion of non-cognate cytotoxic CD8 T cells. We suggest that a comparable scenario can operate in celiac disease. During this study, I observed that chronic overexpression of IL-15 was associated with an expansion of CD103+CD11c+CD11b- mononuclear cells. In the Supplementary results, I have shown that this effect depends on the production of GM-CSF secreted by IL-15-activated NK cells and that CD11c+ DCs differentiated in mice overexpressing IL-15 were enriched in CD103+ cells and displayed enhanced cross-presentation abilities in vitro. The latter results illustrate how IL-15, by orchestrating a crosstalk between NK cells and mononuclear phagocytes, can modulate adaptive immune responses.

La maladie cœliaque est une entéropathie inflammatoire chronique se développant chez des individus génétiquement prédisposés par l’expression des haplotypes HLA-DQ2 ou HLA-DQ8 et survenant suite à la consommation de gluten. Elle se caractérise par le développement d’une atrophie des villosités de la muqueuse intestinale débouchant sur un syndrome de malabsorption alimentaire. La seule thérapie actuelle est le suivi d’une diète sans gluten mais cette éviction totale du gluten n’est pas toujours efficace et est lourde en concessions. Il est par conséquent urgent de développer des thérapies alternatives mais ce domaine constitue un pipeline évoluant lentement, notamment suite à l’absence d’un modèle animal pertinent et complet sur le plan physiologique. L’objectif de cette thèse doctorale est de répondre à ce besoin crucial en développant un modèle murin capable de récapituler les caractéristiques de la maladie. Le chapitre 1 dresse le portrait de la maladie en quatre parties amenant progressivement le lecteur dans les détails de sa pathogenèse. Cette introduction débute par un rappel sur la physiologie et l’immunité intestinale puis elle définit la face clinique de la maladie. Ensuite, le lecteur évolue dans une partie plus détaillée de la pathogenèse aidant au discernement de ses acteurs cellulaires et moléculaires. Finalement, elle se termine par une revue de la littérature sur les actuels modèles animaux. Le chapitre 2 brossent les objectifs de la thèse sur base de données clés de la littérature, notamment, les patients présentent au minimum une copie de l’halplotype HLA-DQ2 ou HLA-DQ8 et plus des deux-tiers sur-expriment la cytokine pro-inflammatoire interleukine-15 au niveau de leur muqueuse intestinale. Il est donc raisonnable de penser qu’ensemble, le gluten, l’haplotype HLA et l’interleukine-15 contribuent activement à la pathogenèse. Bien que soupçonnés, leurs rôles et interactions nécessitent l’apport de preuves tangibles in vivo. Le chapitre 3 détaille ainsi ces interactions démontrées à l’aide du développement de notre nouveau modèle murin. Ce dernier est caractérisé par la surexpression de l’interleukine-15 dans l’épithélium et dans la lamina propria intestinale et par l’expression de l’haplotype HLA-DQ8. Ce travail démontre que l’exposition de cette souris au gluten s’accompagne d’une atrophie villositaire et de la signature complète de la maladie, tant sur le plan sérologique, cellulaire que transcriptionnel. Nous démontrons que la surexpression simultanée de l’interleukine-15 dans les deux compartiments de la muqueuse intestinale que sont la lamina propria et l’épithélium est une condition sine qua non au développement de l’atrophie. Aussi, cette étude permet de mettre en lumière la nécessité des cellules T CD4+ et de l’interféron-gamma dans l’activation des lymphocytes intraépithéliaux et le développement de l’atrophie. Finalement, cette recherche établit le rôle central joué par l’haplotype HLA-DQ8 et par l’enzyme transglutaminase II tissulaire dans la survenue de ces lésions. De manière générale, les résultats issus de ce modèle et présentés au chapitre 3 reflètent toute la complexité des interactions entre le gluten, la génétique et l’IL-15 dans le développement de la maladie cœliaque. Enfin, le chapitre 4 apporte une conclusion à ce travail et le chapitre 5 discute des futures directions envisagées pour ce modèle préclinique. Ce dernier va sans doute contribuer à une meilleure compréhension de la maladie cœliaque et permettre l’identification de potentielles cibles thérapeutiques. / Coeliac disease is a chronic inflammatory enteropathy characterized by autoimmune features. This disease occurs in genetically predisposed individuals expressing HLA-DQ2 or HLA-DQ8 haplotypes and is triggered following gluten consumption. The disease is characterized by the development of intestinal villous atrophy leading to malabsorption. The only current therapy is the adherence to a gluten-free diet, but the diet is not always effective and is heavy in concessions. Therefore, the development of alternative therapies is urgent but is a slowly evolving pipeline, mainly due to the absence of a physiologically relevant animal model. The aim of this thesis is to answer this unmet need by developing an animal model capable of recapitulating the main characteristics of the disease. Chapter 1 depicts a portrait of the disease in four points, gradually leading the reader into the details of its pathogenesis. This introduction begins with a review of the physiology and intestinal immunity and then draws a clinical portrait of the disease. Third, the reader evolves in a more detailed part of the pathogenesis helping him to discern its cellular and molecular actors. Finally, the introduction ends with a review of the literature on current animal models. Chapter 2 outlines the thesis objectives based on key data from the literature, in particular, patients present at least one copy of the HLA-DQ2 or HLA-DQ8 haplotype and more than two-thirds over-express the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-15 at the level of their intestinal mucosa. It is therefore reasonable to hypothesize that gluten, HLA haplotype and interleukin-15 together contribute to the pathogenesis. Although suspected, their roles and interactions still require the provision of tangible evidence in vivo. Chapter 3 details these interactions based on the proposed new mouse model. This model is characterized by the overexpression of interleukin-15 in the intestinal epithelium and lamina propria and by the expression of the HLA-DQ8 haplotype. This work demonstrates that the exposure of this mouse to gluten is accompanied by villous atrophy and the complete serological, cellular and transcriptional signature of the disease. We also demonstrate that simultaneous overexpression of interleukin-15 in both mucosal compartments is a prerequisite for the development of atrophy. This study also highlights the need for CD4+ T cells and interferon-gamma in the activation of intraepithelial lymphocytes and the development of villous atrophy. Finally, this research establishes the central role played by the HLA-DQ8 haplotype and the enzyme tissue transglutaminase II in the occurrence of these lesions. In general, the results from this model presented in Chapter 3 reflects the complexity of the interactions between gluten, genetics and IL-15 in the development of coeliac disease. Finally, chapter 4 concludes this work and chapter 5 discusses future directions for this powerful preclinical model that will undoubtedly contribute to a better understanding of coeliac disease and will allow the identification of new potential therapeutic targets.