This research investigates the cultural politics of 'borderless' education. In Australia, online internationalised education has recently emerged as a market innovation borne from the intersection of two agendas in the higher education sector: an enthusiasm for technological means of delivery; and the quest for international full-fee paying enrolments. The empirical study analyses how both cultural difference and cultural sameness were produced in a case study of borderless education and were made to matter in both the design and the conduct of online interaction. A core MBA unit offered online by an Australian university was selected for the study because its enrolments included a group enrolled through a partner institution in Malaysia. The study is framed in the broad context of the changing cultural processes of globalisation, and in educational markets where knowledge is business. In this more fluid and complicated cultural landscape, the technologies and social practices supporting online education were understood to offer new cultural resources for identity processes. Pedagogy, rather than providing an inert stage for cultural identities to interact, was understood to play an active role in invoking and legitimating possible orientations for student identities. The framework thus builds on a metaculture, or understandings of culture and cultural identity, more appropriate for the cultural conditions of globalising times. The study was conducted as a virtual ethnography of the case study unit drawing on: the observation and recording of all virtual interaction in the unit's website; interviews and dialogues with the lecturer and designer involved; email interviews with some students; and the collection of course artefacts and related documentation. The methodological arguments and design addressed the complexity of grasping how culture is lived in globalised times, and how it is invoked, performed and marked in virtual interactions. Using layered textual analyses synthesising Bernstein's theory of pedagogic discourse and Systemic Functional Linguistics, a description of the unit drew out contradictory aspects in its macrogenre design. On one hand, the design aimed for cultural saming in terms of delivering undifferentiated curriculum and pedagogy for the diverse cohort of students. On the other hand, it also aimed for cultural differencing in the 'student subsidy'of the curriculum. The analysis showed how cultural difference was thus produced as both a curricular asset, and as a series of pedagogical problems in the case study unit. The 'student subsidy' design involved allocating students to purposefully mixed groups for assessable small group discussions in order to enrich the curricular treatment of cultural diversity as a topic of interest. This design invoked expressions of a range of cultural identities and knowledge claims about cultural differences. These claims were analysed with reference to how they were legitimated, and who invoked what culture on behalf of which groups. Despite the design of an undifferentiated process, the conduct of the unit displayed a number of pedagogical problems or 'regulative flares' in which groups of students complained about being overly or insufficiently differentiated. The analysis focused on three such flares: troubles with naming protocols; troubles around genre expectations for assessment tasks; and trouble over 'local' markers for the Malaysia students. These were summarised as trouble with the unit's 'default settings' and presumptuous assumptions about whose cultural terms applied in this educational setting. The study makes a contribution to the sociology of education, in particular with regard to internationalisation and online modes of delivery. The empirical study also contributes to the sociology of the cultural processes of globalisation. More practically, it is suggested that such programs could profitably embrace a version of culture more in line with the entangled routes and global flows that have brought the students and provider together, one that can accommodate and celebrate glocalised identities.

This thesis investigates the processes and influential factors affecting the internationalisation of SMEs in manufacturing industries in Malaysia. Internationalisation of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) has been widely researched but little is known of how and why internationalisation takes place in developing countries and this lack of evidence in the literature provides strong grounds for this study. Jones and Coviello (2005) suggest investigation of internationalisation should include the broad range of internationalisation theories, such as the Incremental and Rapid internationalisation models, Networking, Resource-based and International Entrepreneurship perspectives. These perspectives examine the awareness, process, driving forces and influential factors relevant to SME internationalisation. Therefore, the patterns and dimensions of internationalisation, including the modes of foreign entry, market selection, triggering factors, awareness of international opportunities were investigated, as were the problems and challenges faced by internationalising firms and the key drivers influencing the internationalisation process. A critical realism paradigm and qualitative method were employed. In-depth interviews were conducted with 16 Malaysian experts and 54 Malaysian-based CEOs, owners, and/ or key executives from SME manufacturing industries using a semi-structured interview guide. The data was analysed with the statistical package NVivo 7 and also manually to improve triangulation of the results. The results are largely inductive and interpretive and are presented in qualitative-themes as well as some basic statistical analyses. The findings indicate that interrelated factors influence the internationalisation process of Malaysian SMEs. Various paces, a myriad of entry modes and broad market scopes determine the pattern of internationalisation undertaken. A traditional internationalisation pattern is strongly evident, although some companies exhibited rapid and born global patterns, depending on their industry, products, organisational competencies, knowledge and access to information or because of a change of management. The main drivers of internationalisation centred on key personnel and firm competencies. The study also found that while domestic and global forces motivate internationalisation, aspects of Government policy, procedures and international requirements inhibit the process. More importantly, the findings suggest that networking relationships create internationalisation awareness and provide appropriate pathways to internationalisation for manufacturing SMEs in Malaysia and this is an area where strategies could be improved. The increasing emphasis on the SME sector for enhancing economic and social development in Malaysia means they can make substantial contributions to development and understanding how to improve internationalisation strategies will increase those gains. More transparent government policies and coherence among supporting agencies as well as structured and relevant networks would assist the internationalisation of Malaysian SMEs. Currently, internationalisation processes are constrained by limited resources and difficulty in accessing assistance and supports. This study provides new knowledge and important insights that will benefit manufacturing and other industries in Malaysia and other developing countries.

This study investigates the influence of bilateral free-trade agreements (FTAs) on the international expansion of developing-country multinational enterprises (MNEs). The study includes ten case studies of Thai MNEs in the food industry. The study explores the responses of these firms to three of Thailand’s bilateral FTAs (Thailand–Australia FTA, Thailand–New Zealand Closer Economic Partnership and Thailand–Japan Economic Partnership Agreement). All the case firms regard these Agreements favourably. The findings offer insight into the role of bilateral FTAs in Thai MNEs’ internationalisation. The Agreements help firms to internationalise, at the same time influencing the corporate adjustments they have to make. The firms in this study share a number of common responses, which include adjustments in product strategy and the development of new business networks. The findings also suggest differences among firms in their internal adjustments in response to FTAs. First, some firms respond much more vigorously than others. Second, in order to reap the full benefit of the FTAs and internationalise successfully, some have to develop new strengths; for example, the ability to coordinate and integrate activities more closely. The analysis of the research findings of this study suggests some modification of the inherited theoretical framework, by means of which the impact and role of government trade policy in the internationalisation of firms is assessed. The overall impact of bilateral FTAs on Thai MNEs in the food sector is positive but modest. Directly, FTAs influence the development of firms’ internal strategies, capabilities and resources. Further studies are recommended to test if FTAs impact on other types of firms, other sectors of business, and other countries in the same ways. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1383228 / Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, Business School, 2010

This research explores the internationalisation of Australian firms in Latin America. Latin America attracts seven per cent of worldwide inward foreign direct investment (FDI) stocks but accounts for less than one per cent of Australian FDI stocks abroad. This discrepancy led me to ask why and how some Australian firms have entered the region when most of those that have gone abroad went elsewhere. Drawing on constructs from the Uppsala model and the network perspective of internationalisation I created an integrated research framework that encompassed both the internal and the external drivers of internationalisation. I used a multiple case study research design based on in-depth interviews with ten firms to explore the mechanisms by which Australian firms overcome their perceived psychic distance to Latin America. I conducted interviews with key decision makers at both headquarters and subsidiaries in Australia, Brazil, Chile and Mexico. / My findings demonstrate that firms simultaneously draw on internal and external resources to facilitate their internationalisation. By leveraging their networks firms are able to succeed in psychically distant markets despite an initial lack of experiential knowledge. My findings reveal that firms obtain market-specific knowledge vital for internationalisation via their networks. Internationalisation knowledge on the other hand is mainly acquired through first-hand, in-country experience. / In this research I systematically document the types of institutional, business and social networks that impact internationalisation and categorise the numerous roles they fulfil. In addition to providing market-specific knowledge, network connections ‘unlock doors’, provide reassurance and comfort, provide credibility and help find employees, agents and local partners. Using networks to facilitate internationalisation accelerates the process in comparison to the traditional ‘trial and error’ method associated with in-country experiential learning. / The integrated framework I develop provides a more holistic understanding of how firms internationalise than previous models. My research has implications beyond the Australia-Latin America context as an example of the increasing phenomenon of FDI from and to non-traditional markets.

The aim of this thesis was to study how Maori businesses in the creative industries internationalise products and services. Sub-topics also investigated were the motivators and drivers, the types of support received and the challenges associated with exporting. The exporter, not yet exporter and non-exporter formed the three groups for this study. A mixed-method approach utilising a postal survey and indepth face-to-face interviews provided the data and results for the main findings. Ten themes emerged from the survey results and assisted with interpreting the interviews. An original koru framework was presented throughout the thesis to portray the findings as they evolved. Networking was identified as the preferred internationalisation approach in this study. Of the ten themes, the uniqueness of a product was the most important driver to exporting. Maori tikanga was also relevant as a Maori business driver and presented challenges when Maori principles were incorporated with everyday mainstream practices. Maori tikanga was the only theme specific to the Maori participants, whereas the other nine aspects are likely to pertain to non- Maori businesses in this sector. “Strong” and “weak” ties were integral to the participants’ support infrastructure. However, government and its agencies were considered as being unhelpful to the smaller firm. Finance and exporting costs, followed by a lack of government assistance and incentives were the main export challenges for the participants. Another challenge for exporters were in finding suitable agents, contacts and distributors, whereas fluctuating exchange and interest rates were a problem for the not yet exporting group. A recommendation for Maori businesses is to continue creating unique products and to target international niche markets. Government needs to reassess their support policies and provide initiatives especially appropirate to micro and small businesses in the creative industries. There is also a need for government export agencies to better understand and market the uniqueness that Maori and their products offer to the international arena.

The aim of this thesis was to study how Maori businesses in the creative industries internationalise products and services. Sub-topics also investigated were the motivators and drivers, the types of support received and the challenges associated with exporting. The exporter, not yet exporter and non-exporter formed the three groups for this study. A mixed-method approach utilising a postal survey and indepth face-to-face interviews provided the data and results for the main findings. Ten themes emerged from the survey results and assisted with interpreting the interviews. An original koru framework was presented throughout the thesis to portray the findings as they evolved. Networking was identified as the preferred internationalisation approach in this study. Of the ten themes, the uniqueness of a product was the most important driver to exporting. Maori tikanga was also relevant as a Maori business driver and presented challenges when Maori principles were incorporated with everyday mainstream practices. Maori tikanga was the only theme specific to the Maori participants, whereas the other nine aspects are likely to pertain to non- Maori businesses in this sector. “Strong” and “weak” ties were integral to the participants’ support infrastructure. However, government and its agencies were considered as being unhelpful to the smaller firm. Finance and exporting costs, followed by a lack of government assistance and incentives were the main export challenges for the participants. Another challenge for exporters were in finding suitable agents, contacts and distributors, whereas fluctuating exchange and interest rates were a problem for the not yet exporting group. A recommendation for Maori businesses is to continue creating unique products and to target international niche markets. Government needs to reassess their support policies and provide initiatives especially appropirate to micro and small businesses in the creative industries. There is also a need for government export agencies to better understand and market the uniqueness that Maori and their products offer to the international arena.

This research focuses on internationalisation and e-commerce in small to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), a significant part of the New Zealand economy. Based on interviews in ten SMEs, this study explores the internationalisation process and adoption of e-commerce in these enterprises. Both phenomena are examined separately to explore relevant issues, followed by consideration of the interrelationship between the two phenomena. Ten case studies of New Zealand SMEs engaged in international business were conducted. Qualitative data was collected in semi-structured interviews with key members of each SME. The interview data were supplemented with secondary data sources, including publicly available information on the firms and their activities. A within-case and cross-case analysis was performed based around the three research foci identified above. The research findings reveal that while there is a high level of confidence among the SMEs studied for internationalisation, e-commerce adoption in these firms was at a medium level of maturity. Facilitators and inhibitors of both internationalisation and e-commerce adoption are presented. A major contribution of the study is the consideration of the mutual effects between the two phenomena, in order to raise awareness of internationalisation and e-commerce in SMEs and their significance for SMEs’ competitiveness.

The aim of this thesis was to study how Maori businesses in the creative industries internationalise products and services. Sub-topics also investigated were the motivators and drivers, the types of support received and the challenges associated with exporting. The exporter, not yet exporter and non-exporter formed the three groups for this study. A mixed-method approach utilising a postal survey and indepth face-to-face interviews provided the data and results for the main findings. Ten themes emerged from the survey results and assisted with interpreting the interviews. An original koru framework was presented throughout the thesis to portray the findings as they evolved. Networking was identified as the preferred internationalisation approach in this study. Of the ten themes, the uniqueness of a product was the most important driver to exporting. Maori tikanga was also relevant as a Maori business driver and presented challenges when Maori principles were incorporated with everyday mainstream practices. Maori tikanga was the only theme specific to the Maori participants, whereas the other nine aspects are likely to pertain to non- Maori businesses in this sector. “Strong” and “weak” ties were integral to the participants’ support infrastructure. However, government and its agencies were considered as being unhelpful to the smaller firm. Finance and exporting costs, followed by a lack of government assistance and incentives were the main export challenges for the participants. Another challenge for exporters were in finding suitable agents, contacts and distributors, whereas fluctuating exchange and interest rates were a problem for the not yet exporting group. A recommendation for Maori businesses is to continue creating unique products and to target international niche markets. Government needs to reassess their support policies and provide initiatives especially appropirate to micro and small businesses in the creative industries. There is also a need for government export agencies to better understand and market the uniqueness that Maori and their products offer to the international arena.

Depuis le 20 janvier 2002, la République du Congo s'est dotée d'une nouvelle Constitution. Ce quatrième texte fondamental depuis l'avènement de la démocratie en 1990 avait un double objectif : rompre avec le modèle constitutionnel français consacré par la Constitution de mars 1992 qui instaurait un régime semi-présidentiel et restaurer l'autorité de l'Etat affaiblie par les années de guerre civile. C’est donc finalement un régime de type présidentiel qui est mis en place. À cet égard, l'article 114 de la Constitution de 2002 déclare : « le Président de la République ne peut dissoudre l'Assemblée nationale. L’Assemblée nationale ne peut démettre le Président de la République ». Mais la comparaison avec le régime américain s'arrête là. Car le Président, au Congo, dispose d'une suprématie non conforme au principe d'équilibre des pouvoirs connu aux Etats-Unis et, surtout, n'encourt aucun risque de destitution. En définitive, le dispositif mis en place est plus proche d'une architecture des pouvoirs issue de la Constitution russe de 1993 et au présidentialisme latino-américain. Trois facteurs expliquent cette convergence : d'abord, l’objectif du texte fondamental adopté en 2002 était bien la consécration constitutionnelle de la victoire militaire de 1997. Cette réalité rapproche la Constitution congolaise de la Constitution russe adoptée à la suite de la « décommunisation » lors de la chute du Mur de Berlin. Ensuite, les constituants entendaient reproduire la culture bantoue dans le marbre juridique, en consacrant la suprématie du chef. Une telle approche est similaire à l’influence culturelle bolivar dans le présidentialisme latino-américain. Enfin, la nécessité de contenter la communauté internationale a conduit à l’adoption d’un texte fondamentalement libéral avec une pratique foncièrement autoritaire. Finalement, seule une instrumentalisation de la Communauté internationale peut expliquer le paradoxe du régime constitutionnel congolais. / Since the 20th of January 2002, the Republic of Congo has adopted a new constitution. This fourth fundamental text since the advent of democracy in 1990 has two objectives : to depart from the French constitutional model enshrined in the constitution of March 1992 which established a semi- presidential system and to restore the authority of the state that had be shaken and weakened by years of civil war. The new constitution opted for a presidential system. In this regard , Article 114 of the 2002 constitution states that " the President of the Republic may dissolve the National Assembly. The National Assembly cannot impeach the President of the Republic. " This is the only commun feature the system has with that of the United States. In the Republic of Congo, the President is not subject to the principle of checks and balances as in the case of United States and, especially, runs no risk of impeachment. In the end, the system in place is closer to the Russian architecture of powers and the Latin American presidentialism. Three factors explain this convergence : firstly, the fundamental objective of the text adopted in 2002 was indeed the constitutional enshrinement of the military victory of 1997. This reality takes the Congolese Constitution a step towards the Russian Constitution adopted after the " decommunisation " following the fall of the Berlin Wall. Then, the constituent Assembly had the intention to reproduce the Bantu culture in the legal marble, establishing the supremacy of the leader. Such an approach is similar to the bolivian cultural influence in the Latin American presidentialism. Secondly, the need to satisfy the international community led to the adoption of a fundamentally liberal text with inherent authoritarian practice. Finally, manipulation by the international community is the only plausible explanation to the paradox of the Congolese constitutional regime.

Today Sweden is facing a significant shortage of highly educated labour force, which is recognized by various companies and which can have adverse consequences on the firms as well as the country as a whole. One of the solutions to this problem is identified to be highly skilled migrants (HSMs). Thus the purpose of this thesis is to research the impact that HSMs have on Swedish companies. By carrying out a qualitative research approach, a deeper understanding of the influences of HSMs on the internationalisation and the organisational innovation is gained, while the chosen abductive method allows exploring the subject by taking into consideration the real life issue as well as the related theories at the same time. The theoretical framework aids to build a foundation for this thesis regarding the relevant theories, including the bottom-up organisational design, the brain gain, RBV theory, internationalisation models and organisational innovation processes. This helps to construct a theoretical model which presents a theoretical answer to the research questions of the thesis. Thus the theoretical model helps to analyse the empirical data gathered from the interviews with five representatives of different Swedish companies. The cross-referencing of the cases helps to find the similarities and differences of the impact of HSMs in these companies. This is followed by the conclusions based on the analysis chapter. The main theoretical implications include the findings that the market and cultural knowledge seem to be the most important assets that HSMs bring, which, together with different educational backgrounds, technological competencies and networks, aid the internationalisation of the companies that can be understood through the Network and Born Global models. Furthermore, it is found that the new perspectives of HSMs encourage the organisational innovation through the increased tacit knowledge inside the organisations. Moreover, the managerial implications include recognising of the importance of HSMs for the Swedish companies and thus seeking a more international workforce, empowering the employees and being able to exploit the resources that they bring, while at the same time managing the cultural clashes that might occur. Therefore, this thesis helps to build a foundation for viewing HSMs a solution to Sweden’s problem of the lack of highly skilled workers.