Due to the globalisation of the corporate world, business and management education has to respond by internationalising itself in order to prepare young graduates for the employment market. This doctoral thesis examines how four small to medium sized business and management schools in France are reacting to an ever increasing globalisation process. Evidence suggests that these schools have been experiencing an increase in their internationalisation process at the dawn of the twenty-first century which can be considered as somewhat later than the more prestigious schools both in France and elsewhere. This is due to changing balance between the traditional rationales for internationalisation and also the emerging of new rationales such as customer satisfaction and survival. A case study approach was adopted to study four business schools in different regions of France, all of which were linked to and managed by the local Chamber of Commerce. The research reveals that the timing for this internationalisation process is due to several factors which have both pushed forward and prevented international development. Even when there is a clearly defined international strategy the development is not linear since the international strategy is only one strategy amongst others within the institution and at certain times other strategies may be more important and thus prevent international development. All four schools have clearly used alliances and networks to obtain the necessary resources to carry out their internationalisation; this is seen on an academic, economic and staffing levels. As regards approach, a clear pattern has emerged in all four schools observed in that they have adopted a transitional marginal approach where the internationalisation begins slowly from the outer or peripheral part of the institution and gradually moves inward to affect the institution as a whole. This approach has given rise to several outcomes that prove to be advantageous to the institution as a whole, such as an improvement in the quality of teaching, learning and research. This transitional marginal approach has also reduced the risk of the possible forces against change which are very often present especially in the world of higher education. However, the research suggests that this was not an intended outcome of the strategy but nevertheless it is seen as a possible recommendation for other organisations to take into consideration. The findings also reveal that in the future, this model may become circular or spiral in structure since one outcome related to internationalisation is the globalisation of the institutions themselves where they are beginning to be present in other countries. This again, is seen as a marginal activity.

Research has observed an ever-increasing emphasis which is placed on the international dimension in higher education. This thesis is particularly interested in the question, why internationalisation? It constitutes a case study of the rationales driving the national policies for the internationalisation of higher education in New Zealand, the findings of which are compared with those of the seven European countries (Austria, Germany, Greece, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal and the United Kingdom) analysed as part of a recent European Union 5th Framework Programme project. The available research suggests that economic rationales increasingly drive internationalisation and the first phase of the above project reaffirmed that this was the case at the national level in those countries analysed. This thesis provides an opportunity to corroborate this research and assess whether the same is true in New Zealand. Above all, it intends to contribute to an improved conception of the phenomenon of increasing internationalisation in higher education from which informed discussion and critical debate about its future can take place.

This research investigates the cultural politics of 'borderless' education. In Australia, online internationalised education has recently emerged as a market innovation borne from the intersection of two agendas in the higher education sector: an enthusiasm for technological means of delivery; and the quest for international full-fee paying enrolments. The empirical study analyses how both cultural difference and cultural sameness were produced in a case study of borderless education and were made to matter in both the design and the conduct of online interaction. A core MBA unit offered online by an Australian university was selected for the study because its enrolments included a group enrolled through a partner institution in Malaysia. The study is framed in the broad context of the changing cultural processes of globalisation, and in educational markets where knowledge is business. In this more fluid and complicated cultural landscape, the technologies and social practices supporting online education were understood to offer new cultural resources for identity processes. Pedagogy, rather than providing an inert stage for cultural identities to interact, was understood to play an active role in invoking and legitimating possible orientations for student identities. The framework thus builds on a metaculture, or understandings of culture and cultural identity, more appropriate for the cultural conditions of globalising times. The study was conducted as a virtual ethnography of the case study unit drawing on: the observation and recording of all virtual interaction in the unit's website; interviews and dialogues with the lecturer and designer involved; email interviews with some students; and the collection of course artefacts and related documentation. The methodological arguments and design addressed the complexity of grasping how culture is lived in globalised times, and how it is invoked, performed and marked in virtual interactions. Using layered textual analyses synthesising Bernstein's theory of pedagogic discourse and Systemic Functional Linguistics, a description of the unit drew out contradictory aspects in its macrogenre design. On one hand, the design aimed for cultural saming in terms of delivering undifferentiated curriculum and pedagogy for the diverse cohort of students. On the other hand, it also aimed for cultural differencing in the 'student subsidy'of the curriculum. The analysis showed how cultural difference was thus produced as both a curricular asset, and as a series of pedagogical problems in the case study unit. The 'student subsidy' design involved allocating students to purposefully mixed groups for assessable small group discussions in order to enrich the curricular treatment of cultural diversity as a topic of interest. This design invoked expressions of a range of cultural identities and knowledge claims about cultural differences. These claims were analysed with reference to how they were legitimated, and who invoked what culture on behalf of which groups. Despite the design of an undifferentiated process, the conduct of the unit displayed a number of pedagogical problems or 'regulative flares' in which groups of students complained about being overly or insufficiently differentiated. The analysis focused on three such flares: troubles with naming protocols; troubles around genre expectations for assessment tasks; and trouble over 'local' markers for the Malaysia students. These were summarised as trouble with the unit's 'default settings' and presumptuous assumptions about whose cultural terms applied in this educational setting. The study makes a contribution to the sociology of education, in particular with regard to internationalisation and online modes of delivery. The empirical study also contributes to the sociology of the cultural processes of globalisation. More practically, it is suggested that such programs could profitably embrace a version of culture more in line with the entangled routes and global flows that have brought the students and provider together, one that can accommodate and celebrate glocalised identities.

This thesis investigates the processes and influential factors affecting the internationalisation of SMEs in manufacturing industries in Malaysia. Internationalisation of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) has been widely researched but little is known of how and why internationalisation takes place in developing countries and this lack of evidence in the literature provides strong grounds for this study. Jones and Coviello (2005) suggest investigation of internationalisation should include the broad range of internationalisation theories, such as the Incremental and Rapid internationalisation models, Networking, Resource-based and International Entrepreneurship perspectives. These perspectives examine the awareness, process, driving forces and influential factors relevant to SME internationalisation. Therefore, the patterns and dimensions of internationalisation, including the modes of foreign entry, market selection, triggering factors, awareness of international opportunities were investigated, as were the problems and challenges faced by internationalising firms and the key drivers influencing the internationalisation process. A critical realism paradigm and qualitative method were employed. In-depth interviews were conducted with 16 Malaysian experts and 54 Malaysian-based CEOs, owners, and/ or key executives from SME manufacturing industries using a semi-structured interview guide. The data was analysed with the statistical package NVivo 7 and also manually to improve triangulation of the results. The results are largely inductive and interpretive and are presented in qualitative-themes as well as some basic statistical analyses. The findings indicate that interrelated factors influence the internationalisation process of Malaysian SMEs. Various paces, a myriad of entry modes and broad market scopes determine the pattern of internationalisation undertaken. A traditional internationalisation pattern is strongly evident, although some companies exhibited rapid and born global patterns, depending on their industry, products, organisational competencies, knowledge and access to information or because of a change of management. The main drivers of internationalisation centred on key personnel and firm competencies. The study also found that while domestic and global forces motivate internationalisation, aspects of Government policy, procedures and international requirements inhibit the process. More importantly, the findings suggest that networking relationships create internationalisation awareness and provide appropriate pathways to internationalisation for manufacturing SMEs in Malaysia and this is an area where strategies could be improved. The increasing emphasis on the SME sector for enhancing economic and social development in Malaysia means they can make substantial contributions to development and understanding how to improve internationalisation strategies will increase those gains. More transparent government policies and coherence among supporting agencies as well as structured and relevant networks would assist the internationalisation of Malaysian SMEs. Currently, internationalisation processes are constrained by limited resources and difficulty in accessing assistance and supports. This study provides new knowledge and important insights that will benefit manufacturing and other industries in Malaysia and other developing countries.

This study investigates the influence of bilateral free-trade agreements (FTAs) on the international expansion of developing-country multinational enterprises (MNEs). The study includes ten case studies of Thai MNEs in the food industry. The study explores the responses of these firms to three of Thailand’s bilateral FTAs (Thailand–Australia FTA, Thailand–New Zealand Closer Economic Partnership and Thailand–Japan Economic Partnership Agreement). All the case firms regard these Agreements favourably. The findings offer insight into the role of bilateral FTAs in Thai MNEs’ internationalisation. The Agreements help firms to internationalise, at the same time influencing the corporate adjustments they have to make. The firms in this study share a number of common responses, which include adjustments in product strategy and the development of new business networks. The findings also suggest differences among firms in their internal adjustments in response to FTAs. First, some firms respond much more vigorously than others. Second, in order to reap the full benefit of the FTAs and internationalise successfully, some have to develop new strengths; for example, the ability to coordinate and integrate activities more closely. The analysis of the research findings of this study suggests some modification of the inherited theoretical framework, by means of which the impact and role of government trade policy in the internationalisation of firms is assessed. The overall impact of bilateral FTAs on Thai MNEs in the food sector is positive but modest. Directly, FTAs influence the development of firms’ internal strategies, capabilities and resources. Further studies are recommended to test if FTAs impact on other types of firms, other sectors of business, and other countries in the same ways. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1383228 / Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, Business School, 2010

This research explores the internationalisation of Australian firms in Latin America. Latin America attracts seven per cent of worldwide inward foreign direct investment (FDI) stocks but accounts for less than one per cent of Australian FDI stocks abroad. This discrepancy led me to ask why and how some Australian firms have entered the region when most of those that have gone abroad went elsewhere. Drawing on constructs from the Uppsala model and the network perspective of internationalisation I created an integrated research framework that encompassed both the internal and the external drivers of internationalisation. I used a multiple case study research design based on in-depth interviews with ten firms to explore the mechanisms by which Australian firms overcome their perceived psychic distance to Latin America. I conducted interviews with key decision makers at both headquarters and subsidiaries in Australia, Brazil, Chile and Mexico. / My findings demonstrate that firms simultaneously draw on internal and external resources to facilitate their internationalisation. By leveraging their networks firms are able to succeed in psychically distant markets despite an initial lack of experiential knowledge. My findings reveal that firms obtain market-specific knowledge vital for internationalisation via their networks. Internationalisation knowledge on the other hand is mainly acquired through first-hand, in-country experience. / In this research I systematically document the types of institutional, business and social networks that impact internationalisation and categorise the numerous roles they fulfil. In addition to providing market-specific knowledge, network connections ‘unlock doors’, provide reassurance and comfort, provide credibility and help find employees, agents and local partners. Using networks to facilitate internationalisation accelerates the process in comparison to the traditional ‘trial and error’ method associated with in-country experiential learning. / The integrated framework I develop provides a more holistic understanding of how firms internationalise than previous models. My research has implications beyond the Australia-Latin America context as an example of the increasing phenomenon of FDI from and to non-traditional markets.

The aim of this thesis was to study how Maori businesses in the creative industries internationalise products and services. Sub-topics also investigated were the motivators and drivers, the types of support received and the challenges associated with exporting. The exporter, not yet exporter and non-exporter formed the three groups for this study. A mixed-method approach utilising a postal survey and indepth face-to-face interviews provided the data and results for the main findings. Ten themes emerged from the survey results and assisted with interpreting the interviews. An original koru framework was presented throughout the thesis to portray the findings as they evolved. Networking was identified as the preferred internationalisation approach in this study. Of the ten themes, the uniqueness of a product was the most important driver to exporting. Maori tikanga was also relevant as a Maori business driver and presented challenges when Maori principles were incorporated with everyday mainstream practices. Maori tikanga was the only theme specific to the Maori participants, whereas the other nine aspects are likely to pertain to non- Maori businesses in this sector. “Strong” and “weak” ties were integral to the participants’ support infrastructure. However, government and its agencies were considered as being unhelpful to the smaller firm. Finance and exporting costs, followed by a lack of government assistance and incentives were the main export challenges for the participants. Another challenge for exporters were in finding suitable agents, contacts and distributors, whereas fluctuating exchange and interest rates were a problem for the not yet exporting group. A recommendation for Maori businesses is to continue creating unique products and to target international niche markets. Government needs to reassess their support policies and provide initiatives especially appropirate to micro and small businesses in the creative industries. There is also a need for government export agencies to better understand and market the uniqueness that Maori and their products offer to the international arena.

The aim of this thesis was to study how Maori businesses in the creative industries internationalise products and services. Sub-topics also investigated were the motivators and drivers, the types of support received and the challenges associated with exporting. The exporter, not yet exporter and non-exporter formed the three groups for this study. A mixed-method approach utilising a postal survey and indepth face-to-face interviews provided the data and results for the main findings. Ten themes emerged from the survey results and assisted with interpreting the interviews. An original koru framework was presented throughout the thesis to portray the findings as they evolved. Networking was identified as the preferred internationalisation approach in this study. Of the ten themes, the uniqueness of a product was the most important driver to exporting. Maori tikanga was also relevant as a Maori business driver and presented challenges when Maori principles were incorporated with everyday mainstream practices. Maori tikanga was the only theme specific to the Maori participants, whereas the other nine aspects are likely to pertain to non- Maori businesses in this sector. “Strong” and “weak” ties were integral to the participants’ support infrastructure. However, government and its agencies were considered as being unhelpful to the smaller firm. Finance and exporting costs, followed by a lack of government assistance and incentives were the main export challenges for the participants. Another challenge for exporters were in finding suitable agents, contacts and distributors, whereas fluctuating exchange and interest rates were a problem for the not yet exporting group. A recommendation for Maori businesses is to continue creating unique products and to target international niche markets. Government needs to reassess their support policies and provide initiatives especially appropirate to micro and small businesses in the creative industries. There is also a need for government export agencies to better understand and market the uniqueness that Maori and their products offer to the international arena.

This research focuses on internationalisation and e-commerce in small to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), a significant part of the New Zealand economy. Based on interviews in ten SMEs, this study explores the internationalisation process and adoption of e-commerce in these enterprises. Both phenomena are examined separately to explore relevant issues, followed by consideration of the interrelationship between the two phenomena. Ten case studies of New Zealand SMEs engaged in international business were conducted. Qualitative data was collected in semi-structured interviews with key members of each SME. The interview data were supplemented with secondary data sources, including publicly available information on the firms and their activities. A within-case and cross-case analysis was performed based around the three research foci identified above. The research findings reveal that while there is a high level of confidence among the SMEs studied for internationalisation, e-commerce adoption in these firms was at a medium level of maturity. Facilitators and inhibitors of both internationalisation and e-commerce adoption are presented. A major contribution of the study is the consideration of the mutual effects between the two phenomena, in order to raise awareness of internationalisation and e-commerce in SMEs and their significance for SMEs’ competitiveness.

The aim of this thesis was to study how Maori businesses in the creative industries internationalise products and services. Sub-topics also investigated were the motivators and drivers, the types of support received and the challenges associated with exporting. The exporter, not yet exporter and non-exporter formed the three groups for this study. A mixed-method approach utilising a postal survey and indepth face-to-face interviews provided the data and results for the main findings. Ten themes emerged from the survey results and assisted with interpreting the interviews. An original koru framework was presented throughout the thesis to portray the findings as they evolved. Networking was identified as the preferred internationalisation approach in this study. Of the ten themes, the uniqueness of a product was the most important driver to exporting. Maori tikanga was also relevant as a Maori business driver and presented challenges when Maori principles were incorporated with everyday mainstream practices. Maori tikanga was the only theme specific to the Maori participants, whereas the other nine aspects are likely to pertain to non- Maori businesses in this sector. “Strong” and “weak” ties were integral to the participants’ support infrastructure. However, government and its agencies were considered as being unhelpful to the smaller firm. Finance and exporting costs, followed by a lack of government assistance and incentives were the main export challenges for the participants. Another challenge for exporters were in finding suitable agents, contacts and distributors, whereas fluctuating exchange and interest rates were a problem for the not yet exporting group. A recommendation for Maori businesses is to continue creating unique products and to target international niche markets. Government needs to reassess their support policies and provide initiatives especially appropirate to micro and small businesses in the creative industries. There is also a need for government export agencies to better understand and market the uniqueness that Maori and their products offer to the international arena.