Aim of the study is to understand the elements that can be used in terms of product customisation within the business to business spectrum, to gain a competitive advantage as a manufacturing company by meeting international customers needs. Methods for the study are single case-study with a qualitative research strategy of a using an inductive approach. A semi-structured interview approach was used, with interviews conducted face-to-face and over the phone. There were 10 interviewees all based in Sweden with at least 5 years of experience. Results and Conclusions showed that product customisation is an effective form of strategy in order to achieve a competitive advantage and successfully expand internationally for a company within the manufacturing industry operating in the business to business market. The research showed the elements, internationalisation, culture, product strategy and knowledge transfer, that businesses can use in order to achieve these benefits. Suggestions for further research is to conduct a similar qualitative study using a multiple case-study of manufacturing companies within the business to business industry. In order to gain a broader scope of information, a range of international markets is suggested. Additional to this a study into services customisation in the business to business industry could add further insights into customisation as an international business strategy. A product and services customisation mix too is suggested as further research and how the mix of the two can be used to gain competitive advantage. Contribution of the thesis in international business literature is the benefits and insights of product customisation within the manufacturing industry. It also shows some of the current trends and directions of the B2B manufacturing industry.

Cette recherche se concentre sur l‘impact de la mondialisation sur la gestion des entreprises iraniennes de taille moyenne dans un contexte international. Les caractéristiques associées aux cultures et aux pratiques religieuses qui influencent la performance des entreprises iraniennes de taille moyenne sont examinées. Cette recherche est conduite à partir de méthodes qualitatives et est basée sur la théorie du constructivisme. Le constructivisme est une théorie du savoir qui postule que les êtres humains génèrent leur connaissance et leur compréhension à travers leurs expériences. L‘information et les données ont été collectées par des entrevues rigoureuses et face-à-face avec des gestionnaires clés ou des directeurs des institutions. Étant donné la nature de la recherche, le type d‘analyse de données la plus appropriée est l‘analyse de contenu. Trente-deux gestionnaires de compagnies iraniennes de taille moyenne ont été choisis pour cette recherche. L‘auteur a sélectionné ces gestionnaires basé sur leurs compétences et leurs expériences. Les questions étaient semi-structurées et ouvertes, permettant à certains participants d‘ajouter de nouvelles dimensions à la discussion. Les questions présentées aux participants ont ainsi tentées d‘assurer qu‘ils puissent contribuer à l‘étude et présenter leurs propres idées et perspectives.En analysant les données basées sur les cadres conceptuels et les modèles théoriques, nous concluons que les entrevues démontrent clairement que la mondialisation et ses différentes caractéristiques n‘ont pas d‘effets néfastes sur la gestion des entreprises iraniennes de taille moyenne. Bien qu‘un nombre de pays musulmans et de pays en voie de développement n‘acceptent pas la notion de la mondialisation à bras ouverts, l‘Iran semble se différencier à cet égard et y10a réagi de manière positive. En implémentant les dimensions culturelles de l‘Iran de Hofstede et en comparant ses mesures à d‘autres sociétés, et en jumelant ceci à d‘autres modèles et théories, nous trouvons qu‘il n‘y a pas d‘influences négatives des cultures et des religions qui puissent réduire la performance de la gestion des entreprises iraniennes de taille moyenne. Cette perspective est plus convaincante dans le secteur privé de l‘économie. / This research is focused on how globalization affect the way medium size Iranian companies are managed within the international scope? Characteristics associated with cultures and religious beliefs that have influences on performances of medium size Iranian companies are also examined. This research is conducted based on qualitative methods; and is based on theory of constructivism. Constructivism is a theory of knowledge which argues that human beings generate knowledge and meaning from their experiences. Information and data are collected by in-depth and face to face interviews with key managers and directors of relative institutions. According to nature of this research the most suitable type of data analysis is content analysis. 32 managers of medium-size Iranian companies were selected for this research: I selected these managers based on their qualifications and experiences. Questions were semi-structured and open-ended. But sometimes, some participants presented new dimensions to the discussions. Questions were presented to participants and tried to make sure that all participants have contributions and give their own ideas and perspectives.Analyzing the data using conceptual frameworks and theoretical models, we concluded that the interviews clearly show that globalization and its different characteristics do not have negative effects in managing medium size Iranian companies. Although there are a number of Muslim countries and developing countries that do not welcome globalization with open arms, Iran seems to be different and has responded positively. By implementing Hofstede's cultural dimensions for Iran and analyzing its measures compared to other societies, coupled with other models and theories we found out that there are not negative influences of cultures and religions that could lower the performances of12management of medium size Iranian companies when facing different cultural and religious issues. This perspective is more convincing in private sector of the economy.

Teachers working in international schools can be understood as gearing a student’s disposition towards the ability and preparedness to handle and value differences and diversity. The process of internationalisation of education implies a process of change pertaining to the mission, vision and delivery of education. In an effort to cope with a number of challenges from within and outside of the Netherlands, a Dutch School Group in Amsterdam embarked on a process of change by adopting an international dimension to the students’ experience. Instead of these schools becoming more similar to each other, i.e. converging towards an internationalising ‘master-viewpoint’, the schools’ alignment under pressure showed a process of ‘anisomorphism’: their education’s primary function, approach, tasks, role and objectives for society were changing into different internationalising directions. However, the pragmatic expectations and actions, particularly of the parents and the students, were creating new boundaries and rationales for the schools as bargaining zones. The ‘shifting borders’ between the schools were becoming more connected with a growing international focus, yet had different pragmatic and ideological implications for each of them. The result was that these borders became permeable, a nominal erosion of differences between the ‘international’ school selectively catering for children of internationally mobile families and the other schools catering for all children in the Netherlands. ‘International schools’ became places where students were trained to engage with difference and diversity and where the students had not necessarily been crossing geographical borders. This raises the issue of the role of education in a multicultural and globalising society, as –in this case- an increase in institutional diversity within the specific Dutch national context, and an increased uncertainty about the multiple aims of education, stretched the educational as well as social boundaries which constrain the futures for which students are being prepared.

Negli ultimi dieci anni, il numero di studenti internazionali è aumentato drasticamente presso istituzioni universitarie di tutto il mondo. Questo aumento della presenza di studenti internazionali nei campus universitari ha portato nuove responsabilità e sfide nel fornire servizi di supporto efficaci per la comunità internazionale. Mentre molte istituzioni hanno sviluppato programmi curriculari ed extra-curriculari per supportare gli studenti in modo generico, non tutti i servizi vengono pianificati per soddisfare specificamente le esigenze degli studenti internazionali. Questa tesi valuta il grado in cui gli studenti internazionali sono soddisfatti con i servizi di supporto ed altri aspetti della loro esperienza universitaria, in particolare nel loro arrivo, nell’apprendimento e negli ambienti di vita. Contemporanemente, la tesi produce una ricerca sulla relazione tra le aspettative degli studenti e i consigli e raccomandazioni delle loro università. Utilizzando i dati dell’ International Student Barometer di i-graduate, i metodi di ricerca valutativa e quantitativa hanno esaminato l'esperienza di oltre 45.000 studenti universitari internazionali in 96 diverse università e istituzioni in Australia, nel Regno Unito (UK) e negli Stati Uniti (USA). I risultati di numerose analisi statistiche hanno dimostrato che tutti i quattro parametri della soddisfazione sono stati positivamente associati all'esperienza universitaria complessiva degli studenti e ai consigli della loro attuale università. Ulteriori analisi hanno confermato quali variabili di soddisfazione sono risultate negli aspetti più significativi dell'esperienza universitaria di studenti internazionali e quali variabili hanno influenzato maggiormente i consigli universitari. Questo studio empirico fornisce considerazioni chiave per amministratori universitari, professionisti e ricercatori su come allocare al meglio le risorse per sostenere e, allo stesso tempo, migliorare l'esperienza degli studenti internazionali, facendo in modo di sviluppare strategie di iscrizioni e mantenimento sempre più efficaci. / The number of international students has increased dramatically over the last decade at institutions of higher education around the world. This added presence of international students on university campuses has evidently brought a whole new set of responsibilities and challenges for providing effective support services to that community. While many institutions have developed curricular and extracurricular programs to support students in general, not all services are designed to specifically cover the needs of international students. This study evaluates the degree to which international students are satisfied with support services as well as other aspects of their university experience, namely in their arrival, learning, and living environments, while also investigating the relationship between student satisfaction and institutional recommendation for prospective applicants. Using data from i-graduate’s International Student Barometer, quantitative survey research methods evaluated the experience of over 45,000 degree-seeking, undergraduate international students at 96 different institutions in Australia, the United Kingdom (UK), and the United States (US). Multiple regression analyses indicated that all four dimensions of satisfaction were positively associated with students' overall university experience and the recommendation of their current institution. Further analyses revealed which satisfaction variables were the most significant aspects of the international student experience, and which ones influenced institutional recommendation the most. This empirical study provides key considerations for university administrators, practitioners, and researchers on how resources might best be allocated to support and enhance the experience of international students, leading to more effective institutional recruitment and retention strategies.

Based on ethnographic research with Class V students (generally aged 9-11 years old), their teachers and parents, this thesis explores how gendered and classed identities are constructed in two MCD government elementary schools and one Kindergarten-Class XII (K-XII) private school in West Delhi, India. I consider how local, national and global understandings of gender, class and education shape and are shaped by these identities. Through this thesis, I highlight a conformity of aspirations, among both boys and girls, in the two government and one private school, in which education is viewed as a route achieve middle class lifestyles and careers. Across the schools, students’ identities are shaped within a middle-class culture of schooling in which students are expected to be on track to become individual, self-responsiblised, entrepreneurial subjects who are committed to the development of the nation. However, more importantly, schools encourage students to develop relational identities in which they pursue individual aspirations within the broader context of an emphasis on the prioritisation of family, the nation and religion. As a result, both a (neoliberal) middle class culture of schooling and- more importantly- (Hindu) religious nationalist notions of national identity play a central role in shaping the classed and gendered identities of students in these primary schools. Within the framework of Hindu cosmopolitanism, it is the Hindu, middle-class boy that emerges as the normative school child, against which both girls and the ‘poor’/working class are placed in deficit.

Thèse numérisée par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.

Le présent travail intègre une dimension internationale dans son sujet : La sculpture russe du naturalisme à l’Art Nouveau : géopolitique des pratiques artistiques. Il a pour fondement l’étude de ceux des sculpteurs russes qui, d’une manière ou d’une autre, ont voyagé ou séjourné à l’étranger entre 1870 et 1914. En faisant converger les approches de la nouvelle « macro-histoire de l’art », soutenue par les méthodes statistiques de l’histoire de l’art quantitative, avec l’émergence d’une problématique non pas « bilatérale » mais « multilatérale », à même de rendre compte de manière complète de l’évolution internationale d’un art et de ses acteurs, l’étude se concentre sur les rapports entretenu par des artistes d’un pays avec les autres pays en général. Il cherche ainsi à redéfinir une géographie européenne de l’art, avec une mise en relation des différents centres artistiques entre eux vus par un prisme étranger. Ainsi, par une approche multinationale, distingue-t-il les centres artistiques européens majeurs de la période : Paris supplantant progressivement Rome au cours du siècle en tant que centre artistique de niveau mondial, Munich et Berlin se disputant la place de centre majeur de l’Europe médiane. Paris assoit alors sa domination écrasante dans la concentration des sculpteurs par rapport à ses concurrentes allemandes et italiennes. Les circulations internationales influencent dès lors l’évolution artistique en Russie, notamment lorsque les sculpteurs y reviennent après un séjour à l’étranger : les apports de la sculpture occidentale interviennent dans les multiples évolutions qui affectent la plastique russe depuis les années 1870 jusqu’à l’Âge d’Argent. / The following work is to be considered from a global point of view, as shown in this topic: Russian sculpture from naturalism to Art nouveau: a geopolitical analysis of artistic practices. The basis of this study is that of the Russian sculptors who have somehow traveled or stayed abroad between 1870 and 1914. By putting together the new ‘macro art history’ approaches supported by the statistics of a quantitative method of art history with the emergence of a rather multi-lateral question than a bi-lateral one which has the power to fully acknowledge the global evolution of an art and its participants, this study focuses on the relations maintained by the artists from one country with other countries in general. From a foreign perspective, this study aims at redefining the European geography of art while connecting various artistic centers together. A distinction is therefore made from a global approach between the most important art-related European centers of the time; namely Paris, which progressively replaced Rome over the century as a nationally-scaled point of interest, as well as Munich and Berlin, which challenged their number one standing in central Europe. Unlike its German and Italian competitors, Paris managed to establish its authority by gathering sculptors. Global migration consequently influenced the evolution of art in Russia, especially when sculptors went back after staying abroad. Thereby, contributions from Western sculptures played an essential role in the various artistic evolutions that affected Russia from the 1870’s to the Silver Age.

Emerging economies and the behaviour of firms domiciled in these markets is beginning to develop as a research area; yet little empirical work exists (Bruton, Ahlstrom, & Obloj, 2008; Hoskisson, Eden, Lau, & Wright, 2000; Meyer & Peng, 2005; Peng, Wang, & Jiang, 2008; Wright, Filatotchev, Hoskisson, & Peng, 2005). An extensive and critical review of the literature revealed that there was limited research that focused on the internationalisation of emerging economy firms to other emerging and developed economies. In order to address this clear gap in our understanding, the broad research problem that this thesis sets out to investigate is ‘how do institutions, organisational governance and managerial intentionality effect the internationalisation of smaller Indian firms’? It is argued that in order for research in strategy to make a lasting contribution, there is a need to contemplate whether the theories and methodologies developed in primarily mature and developed economies are applicable to the emerging economy context (Wright et al., 2005). In addressing this concern, this study draws on institutional theory, transaction cost theory, the resource-based view and aspects of the organisational capabilities perspective in order to understand the internationalisation of smaller Indian firms. In particular, the aim of this research was to understand the effect of institutions (Research Question One), organisational governance (Research Question Two) and the moderating effect of managerial intentionality (Research Question Three) on the internationalisation of smaller Indian firms. India was chosen as the context for the study due to its rapid growth in recent years which places it among the four big emerging economies of the world (Wilson & Purushothaman, 2003). The relatively recent liberalisation of the Indian economy in 1991 provides an interesting context within which to study the internationalisation behaviour of firms. Prior to its liberalisation India adopted what was known as an inward-focused, socialist-style, economic framework (Wilson & Keim, 2006). The liberalisation of the Indian economy has increased the country’s trade linkages with other emerging and developed countries, yet little research has been conducted on the internationalisation of Indian firms (Peng et al., 2008; Wright et al., 2005). Further, India’s linguistic distance but geographic closeness to emerging markets, yet western Commonwealth past and geographic distance to developed markets makes it a unique context. The research methodology adopted in this study entailed a qualitative design conducted through multiple case studies. The case study firms comprised four smaller manufacturing and four smaller service firms. Cases for the study were selected theoretically (Eisenhardt, 1989) using intensity sampling, snowball sampling, criterion sampling and opportunistic sampling techniques (Patton, 1990). To determine the size of the firms, the definition proposed by the Government of India was used. One key growth region in India was chosen due to the institutional diversity in India. Bangalore was chosen as it is considered a high growth region of the country that is well reputed for its service sector, as well as a competitive manufacturing sector (Ahya, Xie, Roach, Sheth, & Yam, 2006). The adoption of a multiple case study design facilitated an aggregated cross-case analysis. The data was collected through in-depth, semi-structured interviews with senior management in the selected case study firms. In addition, documentary evidence was collected through newspaper articles, information from trade journals and information from the company websites. The interviews were guided by an interview protocol and a case study database was created for each firm in order to increase the reliability and validity of the data. The data was coded using NVivo (version 7) and analysed using the ‘template approach’ (Crabtree & Miller, 1999). To date, literature originating out of mature markets has regarded institutions as background information due to the stability and maturity of institutions in these markets (Ingram & Silverman, 2002). However, when studied in an emerging market context, the role of institutions is argued to be pushed to the forefront of strategy research due to its relative underdevelopment (Meyer & Peng, 2005). This study used Scott’s (1995) three institutional pillars (regulative, normative and cognitive) to gain an institution-based view of the business strategies pursued by the smaller Indian firms (Peng et al., 2008). The findings highlighted regulatory institutional influences at the home country, host country and trade policy levels. The findings from this study shed light on the notion of institutional entrepreneurship, thereby extending institutional theory to take into account the strategic behaviour of firms. The findings further emphasised the need to gain legitimacy in international markets as a means to gain access to resources and overcome the liabilities of foreignness and newness. In doing so, the findings from this study extended Mathews’ (2006) ‘linkage, leverage and learning’ strategy to a ‘linkage, leverage, learning and legitimising’ strategy. Next, the findings from Research Question One extended the U-Model of internationalisation to highlight the importance of domestic market experience when gained in an institutionally complex market such as India. Finally, the findings highlighted the interaction between the path-dependent experience of the founders and the various dimensions of their managerial intentionality in managing the institutional influences on the firm. In studying organisational governance decisions (Research Question Two), transaction cost theory was used as the key conceptual perspective. This study used Williamson’s (1975) governance continuum to understand the organisational governance decisions of smaller Indian firms. Interestingly, the findings emphasised a move away from the narrow comparative-efficiency framework developed by Williamson (1975), towards a more eclectic understanding of the effect of transaction costs. The findings highlighted the choice of governance modes not as discrete designs, but as those that overlap as a result of being influenced by institutions, the experience of the firm with a particular mode, the propensity to trust, the constraints on firm behaviour, the managerial intentionality of the founders and the need to gain local knowledge from network partners. In adopting this broader perspective, the findings addressed the call by Madhok (1997) to understand the choice of governance modes from more than a cost minimisation perspective. Hutzschenreuter, Pedersen and Volberda (2007) suggested that the role of managerial discretion to date is downplayed in existing IB literature and hence called for research to focus on the role of managerial intent in the strategies of established multinationals rather than on the process of ‘becoming a multinational’. Research Question Three highlighted the moderating effect of managerial intentionality in managing the institutional influences and governance decisions of the firm. This study extended Hutzschenreuter et al.’s (2007) conceptualisation of managerial intentionality by emphasising the resilience as well as the reluctance of the founders (due to past experiences) as important in the emerging economy context. This study has practical implications for the case study firms as well as for potential entrants into India. Firstly, for the case study firms it is important to develop clear internationalisation strategies (as opposed to a reactive approach) due to the increasing competition both locally and internationally. Second, for the manufacturing firms, it is important to move beyond their pure low cost advantage. Partnering with other companies to leverage their resources and capabilities in international markets is one possibility. Third, for these firms to remain globally competitive, the sourcing of international talent is likely to increase their legitimacy and reduce their liability of foreignness. Finally, the continued liberalisation of the Indian economy has made it an attractive destination for foreign firms. While the case study companies have recognised the opportunities overseas, they should not ignore their domestic market where they enjoy a ‘home court advantage’. For potential entrants into India, it is important to recognise the potential competitive advantage that local incumbents have with regard to the environment. Second, foreign firms entering India and competing with smaller players need to understand the subtleties of the market and tailor their strategies to meet local needs. Finally, while this study has made contributions to the field, the findings must be interpreted in light of the limitations of the study. First, this study focused on one key big emerging market; India. Further, within India only one key region was examined. The findings reflect the business strategies by firms domiciled in Bangalore. Hence future studies could extend this research to other emerging markets and other regions of India to gain a more detailed perspective. Second, given the qualitative nature of the study, only analytical generalisations can be made. However, these insights can provide a basis for future researchers to develop quantitative measures to test the inferences drawn. Finally, this study was cross sectional in nature. In order to gain a more detailed analysis on the effect of institutions, future researchers may consider a longitudinal design to capture the institutional transitions over time.

This research focuses on internationalisation and e-commerce in small to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), a significant part of the New Zealand economy. Based on interviews in ten SMEs, this study explores the internationalisation process and adoption of e-commerce in these enterprises. Both phenomena are examined separately to explore relevant issues, followed by consideration of the interrelationship between the two phenomena. Ten case studies of New Zealand SMEs engaged in international business were conducted. Qualitative data was collected in semi-structured interviews with key members of each SME. The interview data were supplemented with secondary data sources, including publicly available information on the firms and their activities. A within-case and cross-case analysis was performed based around the three research foci identified above. The research findings reveal that while there is a high level of confidence among the SMEs studied for internationalisation, e-commerce adoption in these firms was at a medium level of maturity. Facilitators and inhibitors of both internationalisation and e-commerce adoption are presented. A major contribution of the study is the consideration of the mutual effects between the two phenomena, in order to raise awareness of internationalisation and e-commerce in SMEs and their significance for SMEs’ competitiveness.

The micro-enterprise (MCE) represents by far the largest category of businesses in most industrialised economies but until now it has not been recognised as an important participant in the foreign market. Much has been written about how larger firms internationalise through the gradual acquisition of knowledge and resources, although there is a paucity of literature on how the MCE exploits international markets often despite the absence of such acquisitions. This thesis proposes that building a portfolio of relationships is critical in facilitating both market entry and subsequent outcomes. A more detailed investigation of this process helps reveal precisely how MCE internationalisation is largely a function of its specific relationship building efforts.Employing a multiple case study approach, in-depth interviews were held with founders and directors from seven MCE's, purposely selected from three main centres of commercial activity in New Zealand. Interview participants were encouraged to provide detailed longitudinal retrospections of their firm's internationalisation journey, with a particular emphasis on precisely how resource constraints were overcome during this process. All interviews were recorded and transcribed, and together with other confirmatory data sources, these formed the canon of evidence used for ongoing analysis and interpretation. The whole research process was an iterative one with observations made from earlier cases being challenged and refined through the consideration of data from subsequent cases.Several key findings emerged from this study. Firstly, internationalisation is of considerable significance to the MCE in that it expands product and market opportunities, improves operational competencies, and provides an outlet for the achievement of both financial and relational goals. Secondly, key relationships developed during this process include internal, manufacturer/supplier, distributor, support, EPO, and end-user types. Thirdly, MCE's gravitate towards adopting either a social exchange (characterised by trust, commitment and social norms) or transaction cost analysis (characterised by contractual mechanisms) approach to developing these relationship types. Critical to this finding though and previously unobserved in the literature, is that within the context of a social exchange or transaction cost analysis approach, governance (bilateral or unilateral/market) may be observed as a separate construct. Finally, the MCE adopting a social exchange approach overall achieves more robust international outcomes particularly in respect to increased cost efficiencies and new market opportunities.Although no statistical inferences can be drawn from the findings of this study, some important generalisations to theory can be made in respect to the manner in which small firm internationalisation is currently modelled. It is suggested that this research has begun to address the issue by proposing that the quality of relationships is central to the success of the smallest of internationalising concerns. Specifically, sequential knowledge, network, and resource based views, need to better incorporate the moderating role that the relational paradigm has on international progress. To this end it has been demonstrated that the precise underpinnings of the relationship can have a determining effect on both the rate and cost of international progress. Furthermore, managers may also benefit from these findings by improving both their relationship filtering and nurturing processes.