Participation in campus leisure and recreation programmes can provide university students with various benefits, but the provision of effective leisure programmes are complicated by the changes that have taken place in the demographic composition of the student population attending South African universities. Increases in the proportion of black students attending university, and decreases in the proportion of white students means that current students possibly exhibit leisure behaviours that differ from those of their predecessors. With eleven official languages in South Africa, the language diversity among students is a further issue with which leisure professionals have to contend. Students also come from different economic backgrounds, posing additional challenges to universities’ leisure service providers. Since demographic factors, including culturally based perceptions and values, ethnic identity, language, religious beliefs and family structure (Outley & Witt, 2006:112) may influence leisure behaviour and preferences, it is important for leisure professionals to understand how these factors influence the perceptions students have of leisure. For purposes of this study, leisure perceptions are conceptualised to include leisure meanings, leisure experiences and leisure constraints. Due to the lack of research regarding leisure within a South African context (Goslin, 2003:39; Wegner et al. 2006:249) the purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between demographic variables and leisure perceptions of selected South African first-year university students. The study utilised a once off crosssectional research design, using three research instruments, the Leisure Meanings Inventory (LMI), Leisure Experience Battery for Young Adults (LEBYA) and the leisure constraint questionnaire by Raymore et al. (1993:104). An availability sample was used that comprised 344 first-year students in academic programmes related to sport, leisure and recreation studies from six South African universities. Data analysis included confirmatory factor analyses, t-tests, ANOVA and 2-way ANOVA. For leisure meanings, results indicate that female students are more likely to see leisure as Exercising Choice and Achieving Fulfilment than are male students. Home language also influences leisure meanings, with Afrikaans students seeing leisure as Escaping Pressure, whereas English-speaking students associate it with Passing Time. Students staying in private accommodation associated leisure more with Passing Time than those in university hostels. Furthermore, students that are in a relationship are less likely to see leisure as Achieving Fulfilment than those that are not. For leisure experiences, white students are more aware of leisure benefits and opportunities than are black students, and experience less boredom and distress during their leisure. Additionally, white students are more aware of leisure benefits and opportunities than are Coloured students. Seeing that a lack of awareness of leisure participation benefits and opportunities often are associated with boredom, which in turn is associated with delinquent behaviour, the possibility exists that increased awareness of leisure may assist in combating delinquent behaviour among students. In terms of language, Afrikaans-speaking students and students that speak African languages experienced more challenge in their leisure than their English-speaking counterparts. This result may be either because of ethnic factors, such as traditions or customs associated with specific languages or because of language, per se, as proposed by the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. With regard to leisure constraints, black students experienced greater interpersonal constraints than did white students, while white students experienced greater structural constraints than did black students. Additionally, Indian students experienced more intrapersonal constraints than did black students. Students staying in university hostels experience less structural constraints than those in private accommodation. Lastly, students from rural areas/informal settlements experienced less intrapersonal and structural constraints than students that grew up in towns and cities. The study is the first of its kind in South Africa, providing a new insight into leisure, and addressing the paucity of research within the South African context. Recommendations include the implementation of comprehensive leisure education programmes to inform students of the benefits of leisure and the opportunities available to them. In so doing, students can be assisted in negotiating constraints and in developing more complex leisure meanings. In order to meet the challenges, leisure professionals need to know how student diversity affects leisure programming; hence training of current leisure practitioners in the form of short learning programmes is suggested. Future research should include: a) modifications to the research instruments to accommodate the South African population and to increase reliability, b) replicating the study on a broader student population to provide a more detailed picture of leisure perception at South African universities, and c) using a mixed-method research design, including both quantitative and qualitative methods for gathering data. / Thesis (PhD (Recreation Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

Participation in campus leisure and recreation programmes can provide university students with various benefits, but the provision of effective leisure programmes are complicated by the changes that have taken place in the demographic composition of the student population attending South African universities. Increases in the proportion of black students attending university, and decreases in the proportion of white students means that current students possibly exhibit leisure behaviours that differ from those of their predecessors. With eleven official languages in South Africa, the language diversity among students is a further issue with which leisure professionals have to contend. Students also come from different economic backgrounds, posing additional challenges to universities’ leisure service providers. Since demographic factors, including culturally based perceptions and values, ethnic identity, language, religious beliefs and family structure (Outley & Witt, 2006:112) may influence leisure behaviour and preferences, it is important for leisure professionals to understand how these factors influence the perceptions students have of leisure. For purposes of this study, leisure perceptions are conceptualised to include leisure meanings, leisure experiences and leisure constraints. Due to the lack of research regarding leisure within a South African context (Goslin, 2003:39; Wegner et al. 2006:249) the purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between demographic variables and leisure perceptions of selected South African first-year university students. The study utilised a once off crosssectional research design, using three research instruments, the Leisure Meanings Inventory (LMI), Leisure Experience Battery for Young Adults (LEBYA) and the leisure constraint questionnaire by Raymore et al. (1993:104). An availability sample was used that comprised 344 first-year students in academic programmes related to sport, leisure and recreation studies from six South African universities. Data analysis included confirmatory factor analyses, t-tests, ANOVA and 2-way ANOVA. For leisure meanings, results indicate that female students are more likely to see leisure as Exercising Choice and Achieving Fulfilment than are male students. Home language also influences leisure meanings, with Afrikaans students seeing leisure as Escaping Pressure, whereas English-speaking students associate it with Passing Time. Students staying in private accommodation associated leisure more with Passing Time than those in university hostels. Furthermore, students that are in a relationship are less likely to see leisure as Achieving Fulfilment than those that are not. For leisure experiences, white students are more aware of leisure benefits and opportunities than are black students, and experience less boredom and distress during their leisure. Additionally, white students are more aware of leisure benefits and opportunities than are Coloured students. Seeing that a lack of awareness of leisure participation benefits and opportunities often are associated with boredom, which in turn is associated with delinquent behaviour, the possibility exists that increased awareness of leisure may assist in combating delinquent behaviour among students. In terms of language, Afrikaans-speaking students and students that speak African languages experienced more challenge in their leisure than their English-speaking counterparts. This result may be either because of ethnic factors, such as traditions or customs associated with specific languages or because of language, per se, as proposed by the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. With regard to leisure constraints, black students experienced greater interpersonal constraints than did white students, while white students experienced greater structural constraints than did black students. Additionally, Indian students experienced more intrapersonal constraints than did black students. Students staying in university hostels experience less structural constraints than those in private accommodation. Lastly, students from rural areas/informal settlements experienced less intrapersonal and structural constraints than students that grew up in towns and cities. The study is the first of its kind in South Africa, providing a new insight into leisure, and addressing the paucity of research within the South African context. Recommendations include the implementation of comprehensive leisure education programmes to inform students of the benefits of leisure and the opportunities available to them. In so doing, students can be assisted in negotiating constraints and in developing more complex leisure meanings. In order to meet the challenges, leisure professionals need to know how student diversity affects leisure programming; hence training of current leisure practitioners in the form of short learning programmes is suggested. Future research should include: a) modifications to the research instruments to accommodate the South African population and to increase reliability, b) replicating the study on a broader student population to provide a more detailed picture of leisure perception at South African universities, and c) using a mixed-method research design, including both quantitative and qualitative methods for gathering data. / Thesis (PhD (Recreation Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

Subjective career success has been the focus of research for a number of years. The term refers to the individual’s personal perception of how successful he/she is in a career. In many qualitative studies subjective career success is found to be a multi-dimensional construct. Although there are quantitative instruments that measure subjective career success, they do not measure the construct on multiple dimensions. The first objective of this study was to determine the validity and reliability of two existing multi-dimensional instruments that measure subjective career success, especially in the South African context. These are the Perceived Career Success Scale (Gattiker & Larwood, 1986) and the Life-success Measures Scale (Parker & Chusmir, 1992). The second objective was to determine which predictors can be found for subjective career success. Literature differentiates between three broad categories of variables, namely demographical (gender, language group, marital status and age), human capital (job tenure, level of education and career planning) and organisational variables (perceived organisational support and training, and development opportunities). A convenience sample of 754 personnel from the South African Police Service was taken at stations and training colleges in the Free State, South Africa. A measuring battery that assesses subjective career success was used. This entailed the Perceived Career Success Scale as well as the Life-success Measures Scale. In addition, questions were used to ascertain the three types of variables demographic (gender, language group, marital status and age), human capital (job tenure, level of education and career planning) and organisational variables (perceived organisational support and training and development opportunities). The following statistical analyses were done to analyse the data: descriptive and inferential statistics, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, product-moment correlations, confirmatory factor analysis and linear regression analysis. The results of these analyses indicate that subjective career success is indeed a multi-dimensional construct. Three dimensions (job success, interpersonal success and non-organisational success) of the Perceived Career Success Scale (Gattiker & Larwood, 1986) could be established. These dimensions yielded good reliability, but the validity remained problematic. In contrast, the Life-success Measures Scale (Parker & Chusmir, 1992) yielded four dimensions (security, social contribution, professional fulfilment and personal fulfilment). The psychometric properties of these dimensions were acceptable and showed to be reliable and valid. In addition, various demographic, human capital and organisational variables were found to be predictors of subjective career success. Career planning, training and developmental opportunities, as well as perceived organisational support, explained the most variance. Various recommendations were made for the context of the South African Police Service, and also for future research. The organisation is advised to apply the results from this study to adjust policies and practices in such a way that employees will experience higher levels of subjective career success. Furthermore, career discussions may be held in order to enhance opportunities for career planning and provide opportunities for relevant training and development that are aligned to the business drive of the organisation. Interventions that will increase perceived organisational support and congenial relationships could be implemented and maintained. More research on the two subjective career success measures is needed, in order to 1) verify the validity of the Perceived Career Success Scale and 2) to apply it and the Life-success Measures Scale to other sectors and industries. It is also recommended that a more heterogeneous sample be utilised as well as longitudinal research designs in future research studies relating to subjective career success. / MCom (Industrial Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Subjective career success has been the focus of research for a number of years. The term refers to the individual’s personal perception of how successful he/she is in a career. In many qualitative studies subjective career success is found to be a multi-dimensional construct. Although there are quantitative instruments that measure subjective career success, they do not measure the construct on multiple dimensions. The first objective of this study was to determine the validity and reliability of two existing multi-dimensional instruments that measure subjective career success, especially in the South African context. These are the Perceived Career Success Scale (Gattiker & Larwood, 1986) and the Life-success Measures Scale (Parker & Chusmir, 1992). The second objective was to determine which predictors can be found for subjective career success. Literature differentiates between three broad categories of variables, namely demographical (gender, language group, marital status and age), human capital (job tenure, level of education and career planning) and organisational variables (perceived organisational support and training, and development opportunities). A convenience sample of 754 personnel from the South African Police Service was taken at stations and training colleges in the Free State, South Africa. A measuring battery that assesses subjective career success was used. This entailed the Perceived Career Success Scale as well as the Life-success Measures Scale. In addition, questions were used to ascertain the three types of variables demographic (gender, language group, marital status and age), human capital (job tenure, level of education and career planning) and organisational variables (perceived organisational support and training and development opportunities). The following statistical analyses were done to analyse the data: descriptive and inferential statistics, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, product-moment correlations, confirmatory factor analysis and linear regression analysis. The results of these analyses indicate that subjective career success is indeed a multi-dimensional construct. Three dimensions (job success, interpersonal success and non-organisational success) of the Perceived Career Success Scale (Gattiker & Larwood, 1986) could be established. These dimensions yielded good reliability, but the validity remained problematic. In contrast, the Life-success Measures Scale (Parker & Chusmir, 1992) yielded four dimensions (security, social contribution, professional fulfilment and personal fulfilment). The psychometric properties of these dimensions were acceptable and showed to be reliable and valid. In addition, various demographic, human capital and organisational variables were found to be predictors of subjective career success. Career planning, training and developmental opportunities, as well as perceived organisational support, explained the most variance. Various recommendations were made for the context of the South African Police Service, and also for future research. The organisation is advised to apply the results from this study to adjust policies and practices in such a way that employees will experience higher levels of subjective career success. Furthermore, career discussions may be held in order to enhance opportunities for career planning and provide opportunities for relevant training and development that are aligned to the business drive of the organisation. Interventions that will increase perceived organisational support and congenial relationships could be implemented and maintained. More research on the two subjective career success measures is needed, in order to 1) verify the validity of the Perceived Career Success Scale and 2) to apply it and the Life-success Measures Scale to other sectors and industries. It is also recommended that a more heterogeneous sample be utilised as well as longitudinal research designs in future research studies relating to subjective career success. / MCom (Industrial Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

It is important that organisations are aware of factors that might affect the levels of well-being of employees, as employees are instrumental to the achievement of organisational goals. Well-being of employees can be conceptualised in terms of burnout and engagement. Studies have shown that different factors contribute to the employee experience of burnout and engagement. These factors include job demands and resources and psychological conditions (psychological meaningfulness, psychological availability and psychological safety). Although various studies regarding burnout and engagement can be found in literature, three research gaps have been identified from the studies. First, a reliable and valid instrument is needed to measure job demands and resources in a specific organisation. Second, given the cost of some measures of burnout, inadequacies in conceptualisation of the burnout construct and the inadequate psychometric properties of others, an inexpensive measure is needed which can be used to measure burnout in a valid and reliable way. Third, no studies seem to be found which focus on the effects of job demands and resources on burnout and engagement via specific psychological conditions (i.e. psychological meaningfulness, availability and safety). The general objective of this research therefore was to investigate the well-being of employees in a South African agricultural research organisation. It focused on job demands, job resources, burnout, work engagement and psychological conditions. The objective of the first study was to investigate the job demands and resources of employees in a South African agricultural research organisation. The study specifically examined the validity and reliability of a scale adapted to measure job demands and resources of the employees and established the prevalent job demands and resources of the employees. Differences that may exist based on the employees‟ demographic variables were also investigated. The aim of the second study was to provide an overview of current burnout measures that are used in the literature. From the literature, gaps were identified and used to develop a new Burnout Scale for use with employees within a South African agricultural research organisation. The research then examined the construct validity, reliability, construct equivalence and item bias of the newly-developed Burnout Scale. The research also investigated whether any differences in burnout existed in relation to the employees‟ demographic variables. The third study investigated the relationships between specific job demands, job resources, psychological conditions, burnout, and work engagement by testing a structural model of burnout and engagement in a sample of employees within a South African agricultural research organisation. The research method for each of the three articles consisted of a brief literature review and an empirical study. A non-probability availability sample of 443 agricultural employees was used. A cross-sectional design, with a survey as the data collection technique, was used. Measuring instruments that were utilised included an adapted Job Demands-Resources scale (AJDRS), a self-developed Burnout Scale (BS), a self-developed Work Engagement Scale (WES), an adapted Psychological Conditions Questionnaire (PCQ), and a biographical questionnaire. The statistical analyses were carried out with the help of the SPSS programme (IBM SPSS statistics, version 21) and MPLUS version 7.11 (Muthén, & Muthén 1998-2013). The statistical methods utilised in the three articles included descriptive statistics, Cronbach alpha coefficients, principal factor analysis, Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients, MANOVA, ANOVA, differential item functioning (DIF), and structural equation modelling. Evidence was established for the factorial validity and reliability of the AJDRS. The results indicate that the job demands experienced by employees in an agricultural research organisation are: overload and job insecurity; while job resources were: organisational support, growth opportunities, control, rewards, and physical resources (equipment). It was furthermore found that there were differences in the perceived job demands and resources of employees. In addition, the BS was found to consist of three reliable factors, i.e. fatigue, emotional exhaustion/withdrawal, and cognitive weariness. The results also showed construct equivalence for the Burnout construct, and no item bias for the language groups examined. Age was found to affect the level of perceived burnout of the employees. Furthermore, job resources (growth opportunities, control, and organisational support) were found to be positively associated with engagement, while lack of resources and job demands (overload) are positively associated with burnout of employees. Psychological meaningfulness, safety and availability are positively associated with work engagement, and negatively associated with burnout. The psychological conditions of availability, safety, and meaningfulness mediated the relationship between job resources and work engagement, as well as between lack of job resources and burnout. Psychological availability and meaningfulness mediated the relationship between job demands and burnout; however, the mediation effect of psychological safety on the relationship between job demands and burnout could not be established. Recommendations are made for practice, as well as future research. / PhD (Industrial Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

It is important that organisations are aware of factors that might affect the levels of well-being of employees, as employees are instrumental to the achievement of organisational goals. Well-being of employees can be conceptualised in terms of burnout and engagement. Studies have shown that different factors contribute to the employee experience of burnout and engagement. These factors include job demands and resources and psychological conditions (psychological meaningfulness, psychological availability and psychological safety). Although various studies regarding burnout and engagement can be found in literature, three research gaps have been identified from the studies. First, a reliable and valid instrument is needed to measure job demands and resources in a specific organisation. Second, given the cost of some measures of burnout, inadequacies in conceptualisation of the burnout construct and the inadequate psychometric properties of others, an inexpensive measure is needed which can be used to measure burnout in a valid and reliable way. Third, no studies seem to be found which focus on the effects of job demands and resources on burnout and engagement via specific psychological conditions (i.e. psychological meaningfulness, availability and safety). The general objective of this research therefore was to investigate the well-being of employees in a South African agricultural research organisation. It focused on job demands, job resources, burnout, work engagement and psychological conditions. The objective of the first study was to investigate the job demands and resources of employees in a South African agricultural research organisation. The study specifically examined the validity and reliability of a scale adapted to measure job demands and resources of the employees and established the prevalent job demands and resources of the employees. Differences that may exist based on the employees‟ demographic variables were also investigated. The aim of the second study was to provide an overview of current burnout measures that are used in the literature. From the literature, gaps were identified and used to develop a new Burnout Scale for use with employees within a South African agricultural research organisation. The research then examined the construct validity, reliability, construct equivalence and item bias of the newly-developed Burnout Scale. The research also investigated whether any differences in burnout existed in relation to the employees‟ demographic variables. The third study investigated the relationships between specific job demands, job resources, psychological conditions, burnout, and work engagement by testing a structural model of burnout and engagement in a sample of employees within a South African agricultural research organisation. The research method for each of the three articles consisted of a brief literature review and an empirical study. A non-probability availability sample of 443 agricultural employees was used. A cross-sectional design, with a survey as the data collection technique, was used. Measuring instruments that were utilised included an adapted Job Demands-Resources scale (AJDRS), a self-developed Burnout Scale (BS), a self-developed Work Engagement Scale (WES), an adapted Psychological Conditions Questionnaire (PCQ), and a biographical questionnaire. The statistical analyses were carried out with the help of the SPSS programme (IBM SPSS statistics, version 21) and MPLUS version 7.11 (Muthén, & Muthén 1998-2013). The statistical methods utilised in the three articles included descriptive statistics, Cronbach alpha coefficients, principal factor analysis, Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients, MANOVA, ANOVA, differential item functioning (DIF), and structural equation modelling. Evidence was established for the factorial validity and reliability of the AJDRS. The results indicate that the job demands experienced by employees in an agricultural research organisation are: overload and job insecurity; while job resources were: organisational support, growth opportunities, control, rewards, and physical resources (equipment). It was furthermore found that there were differences in the perceived job demands and resources of employees. In addition, the BS was found to consist of three reliable factors, i.e. fatigue, emotional exhaustion/withdrawal, and cognitive weariness. The results also showed construct equivalence for the Burnout construct, and no item bias for the language groups examined. Age was found to affect the level of perceived burnout of the employees. Furthermore, job resources (growth opportunities, control, and organisational support) were found to be positively associated with engagement, while lack of resources and job demands (overload) are positively associated with burnout of employees. Psychological meaningfulness, safety and availability are positively associated with work engagement, and negatively associated with burnout. The psychological conditions of availability, safety, and meaningfulness mediated the relationship between job resources and work engagement, as well as between lack of job resources and burnout. Psychological availability and meaningfulness mediated the relationship between job demands and burnout; however, the mediation effect of psychological safety on the relationship between job demands and burnout could not be established. Recommendations are made for practice, as well as future research. / PhD (Industrial Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014