MSc (Physiotherapy), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand / In South Africa, the concept of Developmental Co-ordination Disorder (DCD) is relatively unfamiliar and not well understood. The exact epidemiology is unknown, but the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM IV, 2000) indicate that the value could be between five and ten percent of the American population. Many studies on DCD have been conducted and most highlight the immense difficulties these children experience with motor activities, both in sport and daily tasks. However, few studies specifically investigated endurance and the impact it has on the child’s ability to function normally without too much effort and fatigue due to the condition. The main aim of this study was to determine the difference in submaximal endurance levels between children diagnosed with DCD and normally developing children. Children between the ages of seven and ten years were included in the study. The Six Minute Walk Test (6MWT) was employed to determine the average distance covered by each of two groups that were selected to participate in the study and thus, the submaximal endurance levels of each group. The first group of participants consisted of children having a diagnosis of DCD (n=31) and the second comparative group consisted of normally developing children (n=17). The results were analysed and compared using the Student t-test. Anthropometric data of height, age, gender and weight as well as baseline data of breathing rate, heart rate and peak flow were taken. These were compared to normative data as determined by the growth charts of the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) as well as previous research on the various topics. The average distance covered by the DCD group was 375.89 metres with a standard deviation of ±73.33 and the mean distance covered by the normal comparative group was 430.48 metres with a standard deviation of ±60.85. When the two groups were compared it produced a p-value of 0.0086 which was a statistically significant difference. The normally developing group covered on average 54.6 metres more distance than the group with co-ordination difficulties. In comparison to studies that determined normal age (Lammers et al, 2008) and height (Li et al, 2007) reference values, the children within the eight-year age band for the normally developing group fell within the determined values. The other age bands fell below average for both the DCD and normally developing groups. The finding of the current study is important as it highlights the discrepancy in the submaximal endurance levels of children with DCD when compared to normally developing children of the same age. This is important when considering that most of the activities of daily living are performed at submaximal endurance levels and it is particularly important to note that these are the activities that children with DCD find challenging. The 6MWT can be performed by children as young as four years of age, with explanation and encouragement. This is particularly helpful in the clinical setting, as other tests of physical fitness require more time, equipment and generally good co-ordination in the individual being tested. The 6MWT is easy to apply and requires few tools, making it a cost and time effective means of testing submaximal fitness in children. It is thus a useful measure to determine whether therapeutic intervention has impacted endurance for activities of daily living.

The current study aimed to discover whether, and to what extent, children and adolescents at risk of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) perceive themselves as lacking competence, control, social support and self-worth. In addition, the study aimed to discover whether, and to what extent, children and adolescents at risk of DCD experience more trait and state anxiety than their peers. Fifty-eight children aged 8- to 10-years identified as being at risk of DCD were matched with 58 control children on age and gender, and fifty-one adolescents aged 12- to 14-years at risk of DCD group were matched with 51 control adolescents. Children and adolescent at risk of DCD were compared to the control group on measures of perceived competence, perceived control, perceived social support, self-worth and anxiety. Multivariate Analysis of Variance revealed that children and adolescents at risk of DCD performed significantly more poorly than the control group on measures of perceived competence, perceived control, perceived social support, self-worth and state and trait anxiety. In addition, significant differences were found on some measures for age, whilst only the self-perception profile differentiated gender.Based on the assumption that children and adolescents with poor motor coordination do have negative views of self and experience relatively high levels of anxiety, a second aim of the study was to test an aetiological model of anxiety. Harters (1987) model of the determinants of self-worth provided a sound theoretical basis for investigating the relationships between self-perceptions and affect. Self-perception, according to Harter, precedes emotional and behavioural outcomes. A series of path analyses conducted separately for each group revealed differences in the pattern of interrelationships between the dependent variables for children and adolescents at risk of DCD ++ / and the control group. The salient findings were that for both groups physical appearance was an important and consistent determinant of self-worth. Few significant pathways were identified for those in the DCD group limiting the conclusions that could be drawn from this study.Overall, given the negative consequences of poor motor coordination identified in the current study it would seem imperative that early assessment and diagnosis of DCD be introduced into the school system.

This study was an integral constituent of a multidisciplinary research project by the School of Psychosocial Behavioural Sciences: Psychology and the School for Bio-kinetics, Recreation and Sport Sciences of the Northwest University (Potchefstroom Campus). Previous research has found that children diagnosed with Developmental Co-ordination Disorder (DCD) manifest with motor impairments and psychological impediments, such as a poor self-concept (Henderson, May & Umney, 1989; Losse et a/., 1991 ; Skinner & Piek, 2001). The purpose of this multidisciplinary research project was thus to intervene holistically in the lives of these children, by presenting a motor-based and psychosocial programme. The aims of this study were to compile a self-concept programme and to determine whether it would affect the self- concept, emotional intelligence and anxiety of the participants. It was a quantitative study, which was conducted using a three-group pre- and post-test design. The child kinetics researcher confirmed the DCD state of the participants (n=67), through the use of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC). Participants were randomly divided into four groups and allocated to an intervention method. Participants were pre-tested with the Tennessee Self- Concept Scale (TSCS), Bar-On Emotional Intelligence Scale (EQ-i:YV) and the Children's Anxiety Scale (CAS). Intervention took place as follows: experimental group 1 (motor-based intervention programme), experimental group 2 (psychological intervention programme), experimental group 3 (integrated psycho-motor intervention programme) and control group 4 (no intervention). For the purpose of this study, all four groups were taken into consideration, but were discussed only as 3 groups. After the intervention, one month was allowed before the post-testing of the subjects took place. Measuring instruments used were: TSCS, EQ-i:YV, CAS as well as the MABC. Findings were as follow: children who participated in the motor-based programme showed significant improvements in their motor proficiencies. Children who participated in the self-concept programme, showed significant improvements in their intrapersonal abilities, adaptability and total emotional intelligence and tendencies towards improvement in the following domains: identity, mood, behaviour, academics and their perception of self in relation to family. In conclusion, children diagnosed with DCD benefit from intervention such as this self- concept programme. Literature (Braet, Mervielde & Vandereycken, 1997; O'Dea & Abraham, 1999; Pierce & Wardle, 1997) however, emphasize that self-concept is not a dimension in isolation, but is also influenced by a child's physical performance and appearance. Therefore, the self-concept programme should preferably be combined with a motor-based intervention programme. / Thesis (M.A. (Clinical Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

This study was an integral constituent of a multidisciplinary research project by the School of Psychosocial Behavioural Sciences: Psychology and the School for Bio-kinetics, Recreation and Sport Sciences of the Northwest University (Potchefstroom Campus). Previous research has found that children diagnosed with Developmental Co-ordination Disorder (DCD) manifest with motor impairments and psychological impediments, such as a poor self-concept (Henderson, May & Umney, 1989; Losse et a/., 1991 ; Skinner & Piek, 2001). The purpose of this multidisciplinary research project was thus to intervene holistically in the lives of these children, by presenting a motor-based and psychosocial programme. The aims of this study were to compile a self-concept programme and to determine whether it would affect the self- concept, emotional intelligence and anxiety of the participants. It was a quantitative study, which was conducted using a three-group pre- and post-test design. The child kinetics researcher confirmed the DCD state of the participants (n=67), through the use of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC). Participants were randomly divided into four groups and allocated to an intervention method. Participants were pre-tested with the Tennessee Self- Concept Scale (TSCS), Bar-On Emotional Intelligence Scale (EQ-i:YV) and the Children's Anxiety Scale (CAS). Intervention took place as follows: experimental group 1 (motor-based intervention programme), experimental group 2 (psychological intervention programme), experimental group 3 (integrated psycho-motor intervention programme) and control group 4 (no intervention). For the purpose of this study, all four groups were taken into consideration, but were discussed only as 3 groups. After the intervention, one month was allowed before the post-testing of the subjects took place. Measuring instruments used were: TSCS, EQ-i:YV, CAS as well as the MABC. Findings were as follow: children who participated in the motor-based programme showed significant improvements in their motor proficiencies. Children who participated in the self-concept programme, showed significant improvements in their intrapersonal abilities, adaptability and total emotional intelligence and tendencies towards improvement in the following domains: identity, mood, behaviour, academics and their perception of self in relation to family. In conclusion, children diagnosed with DCD benefit from intervention such as this self- concept programme. Literature (Braet, Mervielde & Vandereycken, 1997; O'Dea & Abraham, 1999; Pierce & Wardle, 1997) however, emphasize that self-concept is not a dimension in isolation, but is also influenced by a child's physical performance and appearance. Therefore, the self-concept programme should preferably be combined with a motor-based intervention programme. / Thesis (M.A. (Clinical Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

Bakgrund: Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) är en motorisk koordinationsstörning som uppstår i tidig ålder. Det är vanligt att barn med diagnosen DCD undviker fysisk aktivitet, lek och även svårt att klara kraven inom skolidrotten. Interventioner med task-oriented approach har varit den behandling som främst rekommenderas för barn med DCD. De senaste åren har nyare interventioner inom task-oriented approach utvecklats och blivit allt mer populära. Syfte: Syftet med denna litteraturstudie har varit att undersöka evidensläget för behandlingsmetoder med task-oriented approach för barn med DCD och sammanställa dessa metoders effekter på balans, koordination och/eller fysisk aktivitet.  Metod: Arbetet utfördes som en narrativ litteraturstudie och en systematisk sökning efter relevanta studier genomfördes i databaserna PubMed, PEDro, Cochrane samt Cinahl. Studierna kvalitetsgranskades med PEDros granskningsmall och bedömning av evidensstyrka genomfördes med GRADEstud. Resultat: Nio studier med task-oriented approach inkluderades i studien. Artiklarnas kvalitet varierade mellan god, moderat och låg. Det sammanvägda resultatets evidensstyrka gällande effekt på balans och koordination med task-oriented approach graderades som mycket låg vid jämförelse med kontrollgrupp eller process-oriented approach och som låg vid jämförelse med annan task-oriented approach. Studiernas låga kvalitet, brist på poweranalyser samt heterogeniteten mellan interventionerna bedömdes vara orsaken till resultatet av evidensgraderingen. Konklusion: De inkluderade studierna har genomgående varit små och av varierande kvalitet. Mer forskning av hög kvalitet behövs för att kunna säkerställa en högre tillförlitlighet på effekten av task-oriented approach för barn med DCD. / Background: Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a motor coordination disorder that occurs at an early age. It is common for children with DCD to avoid physical activity due to their motor problems and they have difficulty meeting the demands of school sports. Interventions with a task-oriented approach have mainly been what is recommended for children with DCD. In recent years, newer interventions that fall into the task-oriented approach have become increasingly popular. Aim: The aim of this study was to investigate the scientific evidence of treatment methods with task-oriented approach for children with DCD and to summarize  the effects of these methods on balance, coordination and physical activity. Method: For this narrative literature study the search for relevant studies was conducted in the medical databases PubMed, PEDro, Cochrane and Cinahl. The quality was assessed with the PEDro scale and the reliability of the evidence was evaluated with GRADEstud.  Result: Nine studies were included in the study. The quality of the studies varied between good, moderate and low. The reliability of the results to the effect on balance and coordination was graded as very low and low. This was due to the low quality, lack of power analysis and heterogeneity in the interventions with task-oriented approach. Summary: The included studies are generally small and of varying quality. More high-quality research is needed to ensure a higher reliability of the effect of task-oriented approach for children with DCD.

This investigation was undertaken to examine effects of motor skill intervention in children with motor difficulties consistent with developmental co-ordination disorder (DCD) diagnosed in child health care before school entrance, to analyse the parents' descriptions of their children, and to follow up the children's motor status in a short-term perspective. Thirteen studies on the effects of motor skill intervention were submitted to a meta-analysis (Study I). Thirty-seven children who at age 5 to 6 years were diagnosed as having motor difficulties consistent with DCD were enrolled in an experimental investigation of effects of group motor skill intervention on motor skills (Study II) and on self-perceived competence (Study III). The parents' descriptions of their children were obtained at an interview (Study IV). The children's motor status was re-examined when they were 7 to 8 years old (Study V). Motor skill intervention, using the Specific Skills approach, in a group setting or in a home programme, 3 to 5 times per week, was found beneficial for children with DCD who were older than 5 years of age. The non-specific group motor skill intervention influenced the number of children with borderline motor difficulties who changed to having no motor difficulties, and seemed to enhance awareness of motor competence. Parents whose children had definite motor difficulties were more inclined to support their children in physical activity, and reported worry and uncertainty. The children had not changed their motor status at the age of 7 to 8 years. The children with definite motor difficulties, in particular, continued to have these difficulties. Children who when 5 to 6 years old have motor difficulties and who score at the 5th percentile or below at the Movement ABC motor test, seem to need active support in joyful motor learning situations to reduce unwillingness and displeasure.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-12-06T17:07:14Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Cristiani de Franca.pdf: 409149 bytes, checksum: c540efb2ee31351c5b9cae354c5f5d5d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008-03-14 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The goal of this study was to characterize the motor performance of children and to investigate the prevalence of the Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). The population of this study was all the 4.255 children from 7 to 8 years old, male and female, regularly enrolled on the 37 elementary public city schools of Florianópolis, capital of Santa Catarina, a southern state of Brazil. The final sample was comprised by 417 children. The instrument used was the Movement Assessment Battery for Children - M-ABC. In order to characterize the prevalence and severity of the children s motor difficulties we used descriptive statistic of frequency distribution. To verify the prevalence associations of DCD among ages and gender we used the chi-squared test (X²) and the Cramer s V coefficient. To verify the difference between the groups (gender and age) in the total motor performance of the tasks of M-ABC we used the Variance Analysis (ANOVA two-way). To verify the types of motor abilities that the children performed better we utilized the ANOVA for repeated measures. To analyze the general differences between groups in a group of dependable variables (which comprise the types of abilities according to the M-ABC test) and later to fragment the analyses per dependable variable (manual dexterity, balance and ball skills), the Multivariate Variance Analysis was used, as well as to verify the interactive effects of the gender and age variables. Both the variance analyses were done using a model with two independent variables, gender and age group (2x2). For all the analyses the significance level was 5%. The results demonstrated that 10.8% of the children were identified with DCD and 12% presented risk of DCD. The results indicate that children showed more difficulties in the motor skills related to manual dexterity. The analysis revealed a statistically significant difference among genders and ages. Analyzing the individual dependent variables, separated through the analysis of the main effects, we can observe a statistically significant difference between genders and ages only in the ball skills. These results suggest that the boys presented a better performance in the ball skills, as well as the 8 year-old children. The prevalence of children with DCD in the city schools of Florianópolis, SC - Brazil exceeded the 4-6% of prevalence in 5 to 11 year-old children pointed by the literature. The early identification of children with motor difficulties is essential for the proper building of intervention strategies made by professionals in the area. / O objetivo deste estudo foi caracterizar o desempenho motor de crianças e investigar a prevalência de Desordem Coordenativa Desenvolvimental. A população deste estudo foi representada por todas as 4.255 crianças de 7 e 8 anos de idade, de ambos os sexos, regularmente matriculadas nas 37 escolas, básicas e desdobradas, da rede pública municipal da cidade de Florianópolis, capital de Santa Catarina. A amostra final foi composta por 417 crianças. O instrumento utilizado foi o Movement Assessment Battery for Children - M-ABC. Para caracterizar a prevalência e a severidade das dificuldades motoras das crianças foi utilizada estatística descritiva de distribuição de freqüência. Para verificar as associações de prevalência de DCD entre as idades e sexo, foi utilizado o teste do Qui-quadrado (X²) e o coeficiente de Cramer s V. Para verificar a diferença entre os grupos (sexo e idade) no desempenho motor total das tarefas do M-ABC foi utilizada a Análise de Variância (ANOVA two-way). Para verificar em que tipos de habilidades motoras as crianças demonstraram um desempenho melhor foi utilizada a ANOVA para medidas repetidas. Para analisar as diferenças gerais entre os grupos em um conjunto de variáveis dependentes (que constituem os tipos de habilidades de acordo com o teste M-ABC) e depois fragmentar as análises por variável dependente (destrezas manuais, equilíbrio e habilidades com bolas) foi utilizado a Análise Multivariada de Variância, assim como para verificar os efeitos interativos das variáveis de sexo e idade. Ambas as análises de variância foram feitas utilizando um modelo com duas variáveis independentes, sexo e faixa etária (2X2). Para todas as análises estatísticas foi adotado o nível de significância de 5%. Os resultados demonstraram que 10,8% das crianças foram indicadas com DCD e 12% apresentou risco de DCD. Os resultados indicam que as crianças apresentaram mais dificuldades motoras nas habilidades relacionadas às destrezas manuais. As análises revelaram uma diferença estatisticamente significativa entre os sexos e entre as idades. Ao analisar as variáveis dependentes individuais, separadas por meio da análise dos efeitos principais, pode-se observar que houve diferença estatisticamente significativa entre os sexos e as idades somente para as habilidades com bola. Estes resultados sugerem que os meninos tiveram o desempenho melhor nas habilidades com bola, assim como as crianças com 8 anos. A prevalência de crianças com DCD nas escolas municipais de Florianópolis SC Brasil, excedeu aos 4-6% de prevalência de DCD nas crianças de 5 a 11 anos apontado pela literatura. A identificação precoce de crianças com dificuldades motoras é essencial para o embasamento de estratégias de intervenção por profissionais da área.