With sub-micrometric form accuracy and nanometer scale surface roughness, the diamond turning process provides a great solution of fast prototyping optical systems with aspheric or freeform surfaces. On the other hand, with relatively lower cost and lighter weight, optical plastics are now widely used in consumer products. To study and optimize the cutting parameters of the diamond turning process on optical plastics, a series of tests with different cutting parameters settings are conducted on seven different optical plastic materials: E48R, OKP1, OKP4, OKP4HT, PC, PMMA, and Rexolite 1422. The relationship between the surface roughness and optical plastic materials is found, and the optimized cutting parameters are recommended.

Micro cutting is becoming increasingly important since miniature and micro components/products have become more and more demanded in precision engineering applications and consumer goods in a daily life. Meanwhile, it has not been thoroughly investigated yet. Scientific understanding of the fundamentals in micro cutting mechanics and physics is vital for micro manufacturing of micro or miniature components and products. Consequently, the scientific investigation on micro cutting mechanics is critically needed, particularly on its key fundamental aspects on which a systematic approach and key enabling technologies are developed for micro manufacturing. Therefore, three key fundamental aspects of micro cutting mechanics have been identified for this PhD project and a comprehensive systematic research has been performed through both theoretical and experiment-based investigations. The three aspects of micro cutting mechanics mainly include dynamic stiffness investigation, innovative micro cutting force modelling, and the study on micro cutting heat, temperature and their partitioned distribution. All experiment-based investigations are undertaken on a diamond turning machine test rig supported with a fast tool servo (FTS) using different reconfigured experimental setups. The finite element (FE)-based analysis is conducted to further support the in-depth analysis on the micro cutting phenomena especially the modelling and simulation of micro cutting force and temperature. Accordingly, both micro cutting force modelling and micro cutting temperature are investigated using modelling and simulation supported by well-designed experimental cutting trials and validations. The investigation on dynamic stiffness in the micro cutting system is focused on its effects on the micro cutting process and its control strategies. The burrs formation and machining accuracy are explored in relation with control of the dynamic stiffness. Furthermore, the control algorithm for dynamic stiffness is developed accordingly in order to minimise burrs formation and stabilize the micro cutting accuracy. The micro cutting force modelling is performed based on specific cutting force, i.e. modelling the cutting force at the unit cutting length or area as coined as the amplitude aspect of the proposed cutting force modelling. The cutting force against a dynamically varied cutting time interval is proposed as the spatial aspect of the cutting force formulation. The amplitude aspect can provide the insight into the micro cutting phenomena particularly in relation with the chip formation and size-effects. The spatial aspect, using a on the wavelet transform (WT) technique and standard deviation analysis can render the dynamic behaviour of the micro cutting force, particularly representing the dynamic effects of the cutting process and its correlation with tool wear. The micro cutting temperature is investigated to formulate the scientific understanding of cutting temperature, heat and their partitioned distribution particularly at the tool-workpiece-chip interface zone in ultraprecision and micro cutting using a diamond cutting tool. The contribution to knowledge at this aspect is to represent the partitioned cutting heat in the micro cutting process and their different behaviours compared to the conventional metal cutting. The scientific approach to modelling micro cutting application (MMCA), i.e. based on modelling-simulation combined with experimental validation, is further evaluated and validated to illustrate the overall benefits of this research investigation through micro cutting of single crystal silicon (for ultraprecision machining of large-sized infrared devices). This approach is established in light of combining all the three aspects of the above investigation on micro cutting mechanics. The research results show the approach can lead to industrial scale advantages for ultraprecision and micro cutting but driven by the scientific understanding of micro manufacturing technology. The systematic investigation on dynamic stiffness control, micro cutting force modelling, micro cutting heat and temperature and their integrated approach can contribute well to the future micro cutting applications.

Ultraprecision, single point diamond turning (SPDT) is a tool based machining technology that allows the ability to produce high quality surface finishes on the order of nanometers while meeting tight form tolerances on the order of micrometers. It is generally agreed that surface finish in SPDT is primarily affected by four factors: Tool edge quality, relative vibration between the tool and workpiece, material properties and microstructure, and tool geometry (nose radius and machining parameters) machining. To the author’s knowledge, no work has been done to combine all the factors to study their effect on surface generation in SPDT. This is important given that the factors are highly interdependent. Two diamond tools with nose radius of 12mm were used; however, one of them was chemically honed. Results suggest that the honed tool provides a much better surface finish with a significantly reduced amount of running-in stage tool wear. The cutting edge radius of the diamond tools was measured using a novel 3D confocal laser microscope to analyze the chemical honing process and to measure tool wear. The presence of built-up edge (BUE) is more prominent on the honed tool earlier in its life which results in unpredictable surface roughness to appear sooner than on the regular tool. To understand the dynamics of the machine, a redesign of the tool holder bracket was done to increase stiffness. Modal tests were then performed on it to verify performance improvement. With an understanding of the vibration and its effect on the cutting force, a 400Hz disturbance frequency was detected in the cutting forces. From a 3D scan of the surface, a total of 24 undulations on the surface of the part were observed when the spindle speed was set to 1000RPM The machine was instrumented and a rotordynamic investigation was carried out to determine the cause and nature of the vibration in an effort to reduce it and in so doing improve surface form accuracy. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

Ultra precision single point diamond turning (SPDT) is a machining process used to produce optical grade surfaces in a wide range of materials. Aluminum is of primary interest as a workpiece material because it is easily diamond turnable, highly reflective and corrosion resistant. The cutting tool used is made from a single crystal diamond honed to a very sharp cutting edge. The machines used in this process are extremely precise and stiff. The nature of the cutting parameters used in SPDT changes the process physics substantially over conventional machining. The underlying reason relates to the relative size of the uncut chip thickness and the cutting edge radius of the tool in comparison to the grain size of the workpiece. When performing SPDT, there is a functional limit to the achievable surface finish. This is predominately due to material side flow and the opening up of material defects. Thus the machined surfaces have to undergo post processing operations like lapping or polishing, which increase cost and production time. Thus, the objective of this study was to improve the surface finish of the SPDT process to minimize the amount of post processing. The approach involved addressing the ratio between the tool cutting edge radius and the microstructure. Realizing the limitations associated with sharpening a diamond tool further, efforts have been made to mechanically or thermo-mechanically induce dislocations into the workpiece to refine the microstructure and in so doing enhance machinability. As dislocations act as a point of defect, it is observed that higher dislocation density offers less side flow and leads to better surface roughness. A special tool with a flat secondary edge was then developed to address the remaining side flow issue for planar surfaces. The combination of thermo-mechanically produced ultra fine grained material with the special tool provided a substantial reduction in surface roughness from values typically reported at 3nm [Roblee, 2007] Ra to 0.75nm R0 • In addition to this the use of the custom designed tool can improve the productivity associated with machining a flat face by a factor of one hundred times by allowing the feed rate to be increased while still achieving the desired surface finish. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

O torneamento com ferramenta de diamante é um processo de fabricação usado para a produção de componentes ópticos com alta precisão de forma e qualidade óptica final. O crescente uso de materiais poliméricos na industria, particularmente em equipamentos de precisão eletrônica e óptica tem exigido o estudo e entendimento de suas características e propriedades específicas. Esse trabalho avalia a integridade superficial do polimetilmetacrilato torneado com ferramenta de diamante, com relação à transmitância. Os parâmetros de usinagem objetivaram a obtenção de superfície gerada no modo dúctil. As rotações usadas foram 550 e 1000 rpm, a faixa do avanço variou de 5 a 20 µm/rev e a profundidade de usinagem de 4 e 10 µm. Duas ferramentas com geometrias diferentes foram usadas nos testes, com ângulos de saída de -5° e +5°, com raios de ponta de 1,143mm e 1,524 mm. A superfície final e morfologia dos cavacos foram avaliadas por microscopia eletrônica de varredura e a transmitância medida por espectofotometria. A integridade superficial foi claramente influenciada pelo ângulo de saída da ferramenta como observado na literatura. Devido a formação de cavacos no regime dúctil, a superfície final apresentou microtrincas em função do fluxo viscoelástico. A menor rugosidade obtida foi de 33,2 nm para a condição de corte de 10 µm/rev e 10 µm de profundidade de usinagem. Quando os resultados foram comparados as lentes injetadas, observou-se que o valor da transmitância são muito similares. / Single point diamond turning is a manufacturing process used to fabricate optical and precision components with high form accuracy and optical quality surface finish. The increase in the use of polymer materials in industry, particularly in electronic and optic precision devices, has demanded the study and understanding of its specific characteristics and properties. This work is addressed to the evaluation of the surface integrity of diamond turned polymethylmethacrilate regarding the trade off surface integrity versus transmitance. The cutting conditions were selected in order to work within the ductile mode material removal range. The spindle speed were 550 and 1000 rpm, feed rate ranging from 5 up to 20 micrometer/rev and the depth of cut ranging from 4 up to 10 micrometer. Two different tool geometries were used in the tests, a -5 \'DEGREES\' and +5 \'DEGREES\' rake angles with round nose radius tools of 1,143 mm and 1,524 mm. Surface finish and morphology of the chips was evaluated by scanning electron microscopy and transmitance measured by spectophometry technique. The surface integrity was clearly influenced by the cutting tool rake angle as observed in literature. Despite the formation of ductile chips the surface finished presented microcracks likely due the instability of the viscoelastic flow. The lower surface roughness obtained was 33,2 nm Ra for the cutting condition of 10 micrometer/rev and 10 micrometer depth of cut. When the results were compared with injected lenses, it was observed that the value of transmittance was very similar.

A nanotecnologia não é mais um sonho, já faz parte da nossa realidade, do nosso dia a dia. É considerada, por muitos, a quinta Revolução Industrial, uma revolução tecnológica de grande abrangência, que poderá causar impactos talvez sem precedentes na história. A soma anual dos investimentos nesta nova tecnologia é de bilhões de dólares. Devido às inovações oriundas da nanotecnologia, os processos da manufatura e a medição de ultra-precisão vêm se desenvolvendo a cada dia. A nanotecnologia fez da usinagem de ultraprecisão com ferramenta de diamante uma grande aplicação na produção de itens de alto volume, tais como: disco de memória de computadores, lentes de contato, moldes de dentes, cilindros para impressão, espelhos metálicos. A alta integridade da superfície é requerida em todos os itens obtidos por este processo. Em conseqüência, é necessário um método de medição que seja o mais exato possível, isto é, que chegue a resultados o mais próximo possível do valor verdadeiro. Mas o que significa exatidão para uma análise ideal da superfície, uma vez que não existe referência para isso? Superfícies têm sido avaliadas por meio da medição da rugosidade, a qual consiste na determinação de um valor médio, de vários setores, dentro de valores limites preestabelecidos. A metrologia, através de seus métodos e princípios, é um importante instrumento para validar modelos e teorias. O conceito que \"uma vez testado, passa a ser aceito em qualquer lugar\". Daí a crescente necessidade de resultados de medições confiáveis que possam ser validados em qualquer lugar e a qualquer tempo. Assim, um caminho a ser seguido é o de se entenderem profundamente todos os métodos e princípios envolvidos nas operações de medição de rugosidade. E para que um método seja metrologicamente válido (ou aceitável), faz-se necessário realizarem-se comparações de diversas medições, de um mesmo mensurando, utilizando métodos diversos. Havendo discrepância nos resultados, é uma evidência de que as premissas e hipóteses levaram a acreditar que a teoria ou modelo adotado deve ser reavaliado. Este trabalho selecionou os três métodos mais utilizados na caracterização da integridade de superfícies técnicas obtida em torneamento de ultraprecisão com diamante, e descreveu uma metodologia para a avaliação da capabilidade do processo de controle de superfícies técnicas usinadas em torno de ultraprecisão. / Nanotechnology is no longer a dream. It is part of the real world. It is considered by many people as the fifth Industrial Revolution, a technological revolution of great impact in history. The world annual investment in this technology reaches billions of dollars. Due to innovations related to nanotechnology, ultraprecision manufacturing processes and metrology is developing steeply. Nanotechnology made single point diamond turning an important mass production process of, for instance, computer hard discs, contact lenses, moulds, printer cylinders, metallic mirrors, etc. High grade surface integrity is required of items produced by this process. As a consequence, it is necessary to use a measurement method which is most accurate as possible, i.e., resulting in a value as close as possible to the true. But what does true mean if there is no reference for that? Surfaces have been assessed by roughness measurements which determines a mean value of several sectors within pre-determined limits. Metrology, with its methods and principles, is an important instrument to validate models and theories. The concept, once tested, becomes accepted everywhere. Therefore the increasing necessity of reliable measurement results which may be validated anywhere and any time. Thus, it is essential a deep understanding of all methods and principles involved in roughness metrology operations. For a method to be metrologically accepted, it is necessary that it is compared with different methods. In the event of existing discrepancies, the premisses and hypotheses which fundamented the theory or model should be reassessed. Three of the most used methods have been selected to characterize the surface integrity of technical surfaces generated by diamond turning. A methodology to assess the capability of the process of control of those surfaces is proposed.

O torneamento com ferramenta de diamante é um processo de fabricação usado para a produção de componentes ópticos com alta precisão de forma e qualidade óptica final. O crescente uso de materiais poliméricos na industria, particularmente em equipamentos de precisão eletrônica e óptica tem exigido o estudo e entendimento de suas características e propriedades específicas. Esse trabalho avalia a integridade superficial do polimetilmetacrilato torneado com ferramenta de diamante, com relação à transmitância. Os parâmetros de usinagem objetivaram a obtenção de superfície gerada no modo dúctil. As rotações usadas foram 550 e 1000 rpm, a faixa do avanço variou de 5 a 20 µm/rev e a profundidade de usinagem de 4 e 10 µm. Duas ferramentas com geometrias diferentes foram usadas nos testes, com ângulos de saída de -5° e +5°, com raios de ponta de 1,143mm e 1,524 mm. A superfície final e morfologia dos cavacos foram avaliadas por microscopia eletrônica de varredura e a transmitância medida por espectofotometria. A integridade superficial foi claramente influenciada pelo ângulo de saída da ferramenta como observado na literatura. Devido a formação de cavacos no regime dúctil, a superfície final apresentou microtrincas em função do fluxo viscoelástico. A menor rugosidade obtida foi de 33,2 nm para a condição de corte de 10 µm/rev e 10 µm de profundidade de usinagem. Quando os resultados foram comparados as lentes injetadas, observou-se que o valor da transmitância são muito similares. / Single point diamond turning is a manufacturing process used to fabricate optical and precision components with high form accuracy and optical quality surface finish. The increase in the use of polymer materials in industry, particularly in electronic and optic precision devices, has demanded the study and understanding of its specific characteristics and properties. This work is addressed to the evaluation of the surface integrity of diamond turned polymethylmethacrilate regarding the trade off surface integrity versus transmitance. The cutting conditions were selected in order to work within the ductile mode material removal range. The spindle speed were 550 and 1000 rpm, feed rate ranging from 5 up to 20 micrometer/rev and the depth of cut ranging from 4 up to 10 micrometer. Two different tool geometries were used in the tests, a -5 \'DEGREES\' and +5 \'DEGREES\' rake angles with round nose radius tools of 1,143 mm and 1,524 mm. Surface finish and morphology of the chips was evaluated by scanning electron microscopy and transmitance measured by spectophometry technique. The surface integrity was clearly influenced by the cutting tool rake angle as observed in literature. Despite the formation of ductile chips the surface finished presented microcracks likely due the instability of the viscoelastic flow. The lower surface roughness obtained was 33,2 nm Ra for the cutting condition of 10 micrometer/rev and 10 micrometer depth of cut. When the results were compared with injected lenses, it was observed that the value of transmittance was very similar.

Contact lens production requires high accuracy and good surface integrity. Surface roughness is generally used to measure the index quality of a turning process. It has been an important response because it has direct influence toward the part performance and the production cost. Hence, choosing optimal cutting parameters will not only improve the quality measure but also the productivity. In this study, an ONSI-56 (Onsifocon A) contact lens buttons were used to investigate the triboelectric phenomena and the effects of turning parameters on surface finish of the lens materials. ONSI-56 specimens are machined by Precitech Nanoform Ultra-grind 250 precision machine and the roughness values of the diamond turned surfaces are measured by Taylor Hopson PGI Profilometer. Electrostatics values were measured using electrostatic voltmeter. An artificial neural network (ANN) and response surface (RS) model were developed to predict surface roughness and electrostatic discharge (ESD) on the turned ONSI-56. In the development of predictive models, turning parameters of cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut were considered as model variables. The required data for predictive models were obtained by conducting a series of turning test and measuring the surface roughness and ESD data. Good agreement is observed between the predictive models results and the experimental measurements. The ANN and RSM models for ONSI-56 are compared with each other using mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) for accuracy and computational cost.

A nanotecnologia não é mais um sonho, já faz parte da nossa realidade, do nosso dia a dia. É considerada, por muitos, a quinta Revolução Industrial, uma revolução tecnológica de grande abrangência, que poderá causar impactos talvez sem precedentes na história. A soma anual dos investimentos nesta nova tecnologia é de bilhões de dólares. Devido às inovações oriundas da nanotecnologia, os processos da manufatura e a medição de ultra-precisão vêm se desenvolvendo a cada dia. A nanotecnologia fez da usinagem de ultraprecisão com ferramenta de diamante uma grande aplicação na produção de itens de alto volume, tais como: disco de memória de computadores, lentes de contato, moldes de dentes, cilindros para impressão, espelhos metálicos. A alta integridade da superfície é requerida em todos os itens obtidos por este processo. Em conseqüência, é necessário um método de medição que seja o mais exato possível, isto é, que chegue a resultados o mais próximo possível do valor verdadeiro. Mas o que significa exatidão para uma análise ideal da superfície, uma vez que não existe referência para isso? Superfícies têm sido avaliadas por meio da medição da rugosidade, a qual consiste na determinação de um valor médio, de vários setores, dentro de valores limites preestabelecidos. A metrologia, através de seus métodos e princípios, é um importante instrumento para validar modelos e teorias. O conceito que \"uma vez testado, passa a ser aceito em qualquer lugar\". Daí a crescente necessidade de resultados de medições confiáveis que possam ser validados em qualquer lugar e a qualquer tempo. Assim, um caminho a ser seguido é o de se entenderem profundamente todos os métodos e princípios envolvidos nas operações de medição de rugosidade. E para que um método seja metrologicamente válido (ou aceitável), faz-se necessário realizarem-se comparações de diversas medições, de um mesmo mensurando, utilizando métodos diversos. Havendo discrepância nos resultados, é uma evidência de que as premissas e hipóteses levaram a acreditar que a teoria ou modelo adotado deve ser reavaliado. Este trabalho selecionou os três métodos mais utilizados na caracterização da integridade de superfícies técnicas obtida em torneamento de ultraprecisão com diamante, e descreveu uma metodologia para a avaliação da capabilidade do processo de controle de superfícies técnicas usinadas em torno de ultraprecisão. / Nanotechnology is no longer a dream. It is part of the real world. It is considered by many people as the fifth Industrial Revolution, a technological revolution of great impact in history. The world annual investment in this technology reaches billions of dollars. Due to innovations related to nanotechnology, ultraprecision manufacturing processes and metrology is developing steeply. Nanotechnology made single point diamond turning an important mass production process of, for instance, computer hard discs, contact lenses, moulds, printer cylinders, metallic mirrors, etc. High grade surface integrity is required of items produced by this process. As a consequence, it is necessary to use a measurement method which is most accurate as possible, i.e., resulting in a value as close as possible to the true. But what does true mean if there is no reference for that? Surfaces have been assessed by roughness measurements which determines a mean value of several sectors within pre-determined limits. Metrology, with its methods and principles, is an important instrument to validate models and theories. The concept, once tested, becomes accepted everywhere. Therefore the increasing necessity of reliable measurement results which may be validated anywhere and any time. Thus, it is essential a deep understanding of all methods and principles involved in roughness metrology operations. For a method to be metrologically accepted, it is necessary that it is compared with different methods. In the event of existing discrepancies, the premisses and hypotheses which fundamented the theory or model should be reassessed. Three of the most used methods have been selected to characterize the surface integrity of technical surfaces generated by diamond turning. A methodology to assess the capability of the process of control of those surfaces is proposed.

This thesis presents a multi-physics-based approach to the design and analysis of smart cutting tools for emerging industrial requirements, within an innovative design process. The design process is in stages according to design specifications and requires analysis, conceptual design, detailed design, prototype production and service testing. The research presented in the thesis follows the design process but focuses on the detailed design of the smart turning tool, including mechanical design, electrical wiring and sensor circuitry, embedded algorithms development, and multi-physics-based simulation for the tool system integration, design analysis and optimisation. The thesis includes the introduction of the research background, a critical literature review of the research topic, a multi-physics-based design and analysis of the smart cutting tool, a mechanical structural detail design of the prototype smart turning tool, the electrical system design focusing on cutting force measurement and embedded wireless communication features, and the final experimental testing and calibration of the smart cutting tool. The contributions to knowledge are highlighted in the conclusions chapter towards the end of the thesis. The research proposes multi-physics-based design and analysis concepts for a smart turning tool, which can measure the cutting forces on a 0.1 N scale and can also be used to monitor the tool condition, particularly for ultraprecision and micro-machining purposes. The smart turning tool is a sensored tool, constructed with wireless and plug-and-produce features. The tool design modelling and simulation was undertaken within a multi-physics modelling and analysis environment-based on COMSOL. This integrates the piezoelectric physics with mechanical structural design and radio frequency electronic communications of cutting force signals. The multi-physics simulation method takes account of all design-mechanics-physics-electronics analysis and transformations simultaneously within one computational environment, including FEA analysis, modal analysis, structural deformation, lead piezoelectric effect and wireless data/signal simulation. With the multi-physics simulation developed, the integrated design of the smart turning tool and its performance can be physically analysed and optimised in a virtual environment. The tool design process follows the total design methodology, which can be strictly executed in several design stages. Both mechanical and electrical design of the smart cutting tool are embodied into the tool detail design. The tool mechanical structure is systematically built from the selection of the tool material, through the structure analysis and further progressed with static force – strain/stress transformation, equivalent force measurement and calibration. The electrical circuitry was systematically developed from developing the customised charge amplifier, detail design of the main circuitry and coding development procedure, preliminary PCB fabrication and multi-sensor port PCB development, as well as the real-time cutting force monitoring programming and interface coding. The experiment calibrations and cutting trials with the tool system are also designed in light of the total design methodology. The experiment procedure for using the smart turning tool is further presented in two different sections. The thesis concludes with a further discussion on the main research findings, which are further supported by the highlighted contributions to knowledge and recommendations for future work.